ACTIVITY: Solid
diluent and carrier for pesticides, EPA Inert
Formula: Ca5[F|(PO4)3] also 3
Ca3(PO4)2CaF2 or Ca10(PO4)6F2
The
most common F-bearing minerals which constitute the natural
source for fluoride in drinking water are fluorite, apatite,
rock phosphate and topaz.
The epidemiologic prevalence of endemic fluorosis (human)
was directly related to the distribution of fluoride-bearing
minerals in the various endemic areas.
CAS
Registry Numbers:
16984-48-8 - Fluoride (F)
14542-23-5 - Fluorite (CaF2)
14265-44-2 - Phosphate (O4-P)
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite
(Ca10-F2-O4-P and Ca5-F-O12-P3)
- (also called phosphate rock)
1302-59-6 - Topaz (Al2(F0.5-1(OH)0-0.5)2SiO4)
Ref:
FLUORIDE; 14 (2). 1981. 69-74. Hydro-geochemical aspects
of endemic skeletal fluorosis in India: An epidemiologic
study.
By TEOTIA S PS, TEOTIA M, SINGH
RK
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Abstract:
Literature on source of environmental pollution with F
and its compounds is reviewed. Studies
are cited on the accumulation of F in the soil and in
plants (carrots, beets, cabbage, cucumbers, potatoes,
grains, e.g. wheat and corn, fruit trees, e.g. apricots,
plums, peaches and apples, pines, grasses, tea, camellias,
gladioli); this leads to F accumulation in livestock (cows
and pigs) fed with fodder yeast or other feed containing
high F levels. Problems of endemic fluorosis and
osteosclerosis in humans living in certain areas are mentioned
and the negative effects of occupational exposure to F
compounds on various organs and systems of the human body.
A mutagenic action in rats was also indicated. In addition
to increasing efforts at environmental protection and
improving working conditions in industries involving F
or its compounds, serious consideration should be given
to lowering quantities of F in the drinking water.
CAS
Registry Numbers:
16984-48-8 - Fluoride (F)
15096-52-3 - Cryolite ( Al-F6.3Na)
14542-23-5 - Fluorite (CaF2)
1318-94-1 - Muscovite ( Al.H4-O4-Si.1/3K)
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite
(Ca10-F2-O4-P and Ca5-F-O12-P3)
1302-27-8 - Biotite ( Al.F.Fe.H-O.K.Mg.O3-Si.O)
Ref:
Ecological problems of the production and use of fluorine
compounds. By
RODIN VI. ZH VSES KHIM O-VA IM D I MENDELEEVA; 24 (1).
1979. 42-48.
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Adverse Effects:
Atrophic rhinitis
Lung
Contamination Incident: Placentia
Bay, Newfoundland (1969)
Environmental
Atrophic rhinitis
Abstract: The nasal mucosae of workers subjected to prolonged
exposure to phosphorite (PH) and apatite
(1306-05-4) (AP) dusts were
examined. A group of 131 male workers employed at the harbor quay
in the transshipment, transport, and storage of PH and AP ores
was selected. They had been occupationally exposed for an average
of 8.6+/-4.7yr, working about 6 hours per day. The control group
of 129 workers were employed in the transshipment of general dustless
cargo. Laryngological and cytological examinations of nasal mucosa
smears, as well as urinary examination for fluorine (F) ions were
conducted. Results showed that urinary F
ions in the exposed group increased from 0.8 milligrams per liter
(mg/l) before work to 1mg/l after work, and was higher than that
in the control group (0.63mg/l). Rhinoscopy showed that
inflammatory changes corresponding to chronic,
simple, or atrophic rhinitis were more frequent in the
exposed group. The number of atrophic rhinitis•
cases increased with years in the
workplace, and in those who had worked longer than 10yr, incidence
was about 53%. Cytologically, exposed
workers displayed stratified squamous epithelium or metaplastic
cells, together with degenerative, inflammatory changes. The number
of morphotic elements of epithelial and nonepithelial origin was
greater than in the control group. The authors conclude
that cytological screening can be used for assessing the effects
of PH and AP dusts on the nasal mucosa.
CAS Registry Numbers:
1306-05-4 -
Fluorapatite
Ref:
Assessment of the Nasal Mucosa in Workers Exposed to the Prolonged
Effect of Phosphorite and Apatite Dusts. Mickiewicz L, Mikulski
T. Kuzna-Grygiel W, Swiech Z. Polish Journal of Occupational Medicine
and Environmental Health, Vol. 6, No. 3, pages 277-285, 23 references,
1993.
• Definition: Atrophic rhinitis
Atrophic rhinitis is characterised by squamous metaplasia followed
by atrophy. The nose becomes filled with foul smelling crusts.
The smell from these crusts may cause the child to be ostracized...
The cause of atrophic rhinitis is unknown, although bacterial
infection frequently plays a role. The mucous membrane changes
from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to stratified
squamous epithelium, and the lamina propria is reduced in amount
and vascularity. Anosmia results, and epistaxis may be recurrent
and severe. Atrophic rhinitis is differentiated from other forms
of chronic rhinitis by the abnormal patency of the nasal cavities,
caused by atrophy of the blood vessels and the seromucinous
glands in the lamina propria.
Ref: http://www.herbchina2000.com/therapies/JRS.shtml
Lung
(click on for all fluorinated pesticides)
Abstract:
In a study of the effects of phosphorite and apatite (1306-05-4)
dusts on respiratory function, industrial hygiene monitoring
of workplace total and respirable dusts was performed on a cohort
of 118 males, mean age 37.3 years, who had been employed in processing
phosphorite and apatite ores for a mean of 8.6 years. The comparisons
consisted of 149 healthy males, mean age 35.6 years, who had never
been exposed to phosphorite or apatite dusts. Approximately 67%
of the subjects in each group were smokers. The subjects completed
a respiratory symptom questionnaire, pulmonary function testing
was performed, and chest X-rays were obtained. Total workplace
dust concentrations ranged from 14 to 228 milligrams per cubic
meter. The respirable fraction accounted for approximately 18%
of the total dust concentrations and consisted primarily of calcium-oxide
(1305788), phosphorus oxides, silica (14808607), and fluorides.
Both the cohort and comparisons reported similar prevalences of
chronic cough, excess sputum production, and dyspnea, 15 and 12%,
respectively. The chest X-ray films of both groups were similar.
Group mean values of forced vital capacity (FVC), 1 second forced
expiratory volume (FEV1), and maximum expiratory flow at 25% (MEF25)
and 75% of FVC (MEF75) were significantly lower in nonsmoking
phosphorite and apatite workers than in nonsmoking comparisons.
Mean transit times (MTTs) were significantly longer in the nonsmoking
exposed workers than in nonsmoking comparisons. These changes
were not significantly associated with duration of phosphorite
or apatite exposure. FVC, FEV1, MEF25, maximum expiratory flow
at 50% FVC, MEF75, and MTT were significantly decreased in smoking
comparisons relative to smokers in the cohort. No smoking related
changes in these parameters were seen in the exposed workers.
The authors conclude that occupational exposure
to phosphorite and apatite dusts causes decrements in pulmonary
function in nonsmoking workers.
Ref:
Assessment
of the Respiratory System in Workers Occupationally Exposed to
Phosphorite and Apatite Dusts; by
Mikulski T, Podraza H, Steciuk W, Swiech Z . International
Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, Vol.
7, No. 2, pages 119-124, 20 references, 1994.
Abstract: Fifty mg of apatite-concentrate and apatite-nepheline
(apatite ore), suspended in 1 ml of physiological saline solution,
were applied once intratracheally to female albino rats. Twenty-six,
39 and 52 wk later the animals were sacrificed and a histological
examination of the macroscopically affected parts of the lungs
and the paratracheal lymph nodes was done.
In all 52 wk animals a histocytical and fibrocytical formation
of nodules in the lungs with a desquamation of the epithelia and
metaplastic modifications of the plateepithelium of the bronchial
mucous membrane was observed. Application of apatite-concentrate
resulted in a lympho-plasmacellular reaction with subsequent leucocytical
infiltration. In both dust samples the examined lymph nodules
showed the symptoms of a chronic lymphadenitis. Apatite-ore
causes a fibrous injury of the parenchyma of the lungs. This damage
was not observed in the case of apatite-concentrate.
CAS Registry Numbers:
1302-72-3 - Nepheline: (Na, K)AlSiO4 , Sodium Potassium Aluminum
Silicate
1306-05-4 -
Fluorapatite
Ref: (Investigation
on the effects of a singly intratracheal application of apatite-nepheline
and apatite-concentrate dust to rat lungs.) by HOLLENBACH K, KERSTEN
E, PATZELT K, SCHWESINGER G. INT ARCH ARBEITSMED; 28 (3). 1971
271-282
Abstract: The prevalence of pneumoconioses
among phosphate (1306-05-4) rock workers
in Brazil was assessed. The 73 workers evaluated in the investigation
were exposed to phosphate rock extracted in the states of Goias
and Minas Gerais, where the material was crushed and then transported
to Paulinia for storage in underground mills. Subjects submitted
to a detailed respiratory questionnaire, a physical examination
emphasizing the respiratory system, pulmonary function tests,
chest x-rays, and, in two cases, lung biopsies through thoracotomy.
The quantity of free silica (7631869) in airborne samples was
measured by colorimetric analysis. A semiquantitative analysis
was performed on airborne samples using x-ray spectrometry.
Twenty of the workers were noted to have pneumoconioses. Mean
exposure was 46 months. The majority of the cases had no
respiratory symptoms. No significant fibrosis was noted, and no
pleura disease or mediastinal alterations were observed. No traces
of free silica were detected by diffraction analysis. The author
concludes that the high prevalence of pneumoconioses noted in
this study must derive from the particularly poor working conditions
at the facilities. A regular followup using lung function tests
and chest x-rays should be included in the routine examination
of phosphate rock workers.
Ref: Prevalence
of Pneumoconioses among Phosphate Rock Workers in Brazil by de
Capitani EM. Proceedings of the VIIth International Pneumoconioses
Conference, Part II. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, August 23-26, 1988.
NIOSH, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 90-108 Part II, pages 1310-1311, 1990.
Abstract: The pulmonary nonasbestos mineral
fiber content was analyzed in the lungs of 20 individuals who
had no occupational exposure to fibers. Thirteen different mineral
species were identified which accounted for 71 percent of the
fibers counted. Among those found were apatite
(1306-05-4), talc (14807966), attapulgite (1337764), gypsum
(13397245), silica (7631869), rutile (13463677), kaolinite (1318747),
mullite (1302767), illite (12173603), pyroxene (12174377), pyrophyllite
(68136618), feldspar, vermiculite (1318009), and chlorite (1318598).
The average number of nonasbestos fibers for the 20 cases was
106,000/gram wet lung. There was no significant difference recorded
between smokers and nonsmokers nor was there a difference based
on age. Apatite was the most frequently
observed fiber with a mean of 19,000 fibers/gram wet lung, or
18 percent of the nonasbestos fibers present. Talc was
the next highest in concentration and together talc and apatite
constituted over one third of the total fibers present. Only silica
was found in every lung sample. Eighty six percent of the fibers
were between 1 and 4.9 microns in length with 3 percent being
over 10 microns in length. Concerning distribution in the lungs,
the mean number of fibers in the subpleural upper lobe was 30,500;
in the peripheral lower lobe 37,000; in the central upper lobe
19,500; and in the central lower lobe 19,500 fibers/gram wet lung.
Interstitial fibrosis did not occur in any patient unless it was
explainable as a result of treatment or old infectious disease.
Three of these individuals had lung cancer and one had gastrointestinal
cancer but in none of these individuals were there any differences
in nonasbestos fiber content in the lungs when compared to other
members of the study group.
Ref: Nonasbestos
Pulmonary Mineral Fibers in the General Population by Churg A.
Environmental Research, Vol. 31, No. 1, pages 189-200, 22 references,
1983.
Abstract: Small-airway lesions were identified in histologic
sections from the lungs of 7 workers with histories of exposure
to nonasbestos dusts. The lesions consisted of deposits of fibrous
tissue, often accompanied by pigment, in the walls of membranous
and respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts.
Comparison with a matched population of persons with no dust exposure
revealed that the changes in the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar
ducts were morphologically distinctive and could be used to diagnose
the lesions. Structurally, these lesions were similar to
those described in the airways of asbestos workers, although comparison
with the authors' previous results indicated that the number of
severely affected airways was less in the nonasbestos dust group.
Mineralogic analysis indicated that these abnormalities were produced
by a variety of different dusts including silica, iron oxide and
aluminum oxide, and that occult asbestos exposure, although possible
in 3 cases, was most likely not a primary cause of disease. This
lesion, called mineral dust airways disease, was a nonspecific
reaction of the small airways to inorganic particulates.
The presence of such changes cast doubt on the theory that small-airway
abnormalities in asbestos workers were the earliest form of asbestosis.
CAS
Registry Numbers:
17068-78-9 - Anthophyllite asbestos
14567-73-8 - Tremolite
12172-73-5 - Asbestos, amosite
12001-28-4 - Asbestos, crocidolite
12001-26-2 - Mica
7631-86-9 - Siliceous earth, purified
1344-28-1 - Aluminum oxide
1318-74-7 - Kaolinite (Al2(OH)4(Si2O5))
1317-80-2 - Rutile (TiO2)
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite
Ref:
Small-airway lesions in patients exposed to nonasbestos mineral
dusts. CHURG A, WRIGHT JL. HUM PATHOL; 14 (8).
1983. 688-693.
Abstract:
Pure monoclinic or triclinic calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD)
crystals, apatite crystals or mixtures of these crystals were
injected into the synovial-like space created by the rat air pouch
to compare the acute inflammation induced by these crystals. Fluids
were withdrawn 6 h after injection and examined for leukocyte
counts, protease, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and tumor necrosis factor
(TNF) levels. CPPD crystals (especially
monoclinic CPPD) induced higher numbers of leukocytes,
and more protease, PGE2 and TNF than apatite. CPPD seemed to play
a predominant role in the acute inflammation induced by mixed
crystals.
CAS Registry Numbers:
17031-92-4 - Diphosphoric acid, calcium salt (1:2), dihydrate
1306-05-4 -
Fluorapatite
Ref: Comparison of the acute inflammation
induced by calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate, apatite and mixed
crystals in the rat air pouch model of a synovial space. WATANABE
W, BAKER DG, SCHUMACHER H R JR. J RHEUMATOL; 19 (9). 1992. 1453-1457.
Contamination
Incident (click
on for all fluorinated pesticides)
Placentia
Bay, Newfoundland
The
contamination of a fishery and resulting high mortality
of herring, cod, and lobsters are reported for Long Harbour,
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, following discharge
of wastes containing phosphorus (7723140) from a nearby
fluorapatite (1306-05-4) ore pelletizing
plant. Waste effluents contain cyanide (57125), ammonium
(14798039) ions, sulfur-dioxide (7446095), calcium-phosphate
(7757939), and calcium-fluoride (7789-74-4). Measures are
described for preventing toxic pollutants from entering
the bay, reducing effluents to non-toxic forms, and removal
of deposited phosphorus from bottom sediments by dredging.
Ref: Coexistence
of a Fishery and a Major Industry in Placentia Bay, by Idler
DR. Chemistry in Canada, Vol. 21, pages 16-21, 1969.
...
Late in 1969 a number of massive fishkills occurred in Long
Harbour and neighboring regions of Placentia Bay in Newfoundland.
The fish kills were attributed to the startup of a phosphorus
producing plant at Long Harbour. A study was undertaken
by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada to determine the
toxicity of yellow phosphorus to marine life. Results of
the research were reported in a book entitled "Effects
of Elemental Phosphorus on Marine Life," compiled and
edited by P. J. Jangaard, Circular No. 2, November 1972,
Atlantic Regional Office, Research and Development, Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The book is a compilation of technical papers which describe
the pollution problem at Long Harbour, give results of research
on toxicity of elemental phosphorus and describe methods
used to clean up Placentia Bay. An abstract of one of the
technical papers is given below as an example to show the
relative sensitivity of marine life to small concentrations
of elemental phosphorus in water. The paper abstracted is
"Yellow Phosphorus Pollution: Its Toxicity to Seawater-Maintained
Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and smelt (Osmerus mordax),"
by G. L. Fletcher, R. J. Hoyle, and D. A. Horne, Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, Halifax Laboratory, Halifax, Nova
Scotia...
Ref: Processes
for the disposal and recovery of phossy water. United
States Patent 5549878.
...
In 1969, a massive fish kill that
turned Placentia Bay, Newfoundland into "a biological
desert" was traced to fluoride effluent from a plant
that produced elemental phosphorus for metal finishing and
consumer goods. Some 22,800 pounds of fluoride effluent
poured into the bay each day, primarily in the form of hydrofluosilicic
acid - the same substance used to fluoridate city water
supplies...
Ref: Why
Fluoride Is an Environmental Issue, by Gar Smith. Earth
Island Journal.
...
People who lived near the ERCO facility had had first-hand
experience with pollution. In 1968 liquids flowing from
the plant poisoned the waters around Long Harbour. Great
numbers of dead fish ”some of which had turned a strange
red colour” washed up on beaches. Both the plant and
the fishery were closed immediately while an investigation
took place.
When
vegetation and trees around the ERCO plant died mysterious1)',
the Department of Health advised people not to have vegetable
gardens or to pick berries within three kilometres of the
facility When the plant closed in 1989 it was estimated
that it would take 25 years and more than $100 million to
clean up the mess its owners had left behind.
From
Newfoundland writer Greg Whelan's history of the ERCO plant:
Threats
to the environment were apparent almost from the beginning.
The Red Herring Scare occurred in December when it was discovered
that fish exposed to phosphorous effluent
from the plant suffered internal bleeding and were washing
up dead throughout Placentia Bay. Other wildlife in the
area were affected as well. A moose and two rabbits were
found to be deformed due to excess bone fluoride levels.
The mysterious death of vegetation within a 3 km radius
of the facility prompted the provincial
department of health to warn residents not to grow vegetable
gardens or pick berries in the region.
Measures
introduced over the years by ERCO and the subsequent owner
Albright and Wilson Americas, reduced the pollution to "acceptable"
levels, and the most common concern voiced by Long Harbour
residents was a slight annoyance with the yellow dust that
continuously covered their homes and cars.
Today,
the phosphorous plant is gone, and the town and the province
must deal with two problems: the loss of nearly 300 jobs,
and what to do with the contaminated areas left behind.
... In 1991 there was a belief among the residents of the
region that they had a much higher rate of cancer than normal.
As a result the Placentia Area Cancer Group had been formed.
Bruce Gilbert was a member. He had arranged that blood samples
be taken from a group of local residents. The samples had
been sent to world-renowned environmental scientist Dr.
Rosalie Bertell in Toronto for analysis...
Ref: Taking
the Lead. Volume 3: Taking On the Fight. A project of
the Writer's Alliance of Newfoundland and Labrador.
|
Environmental
(click on for all fluorinated
pesticides)
SCI
TOTAL ENVIRON; 49 (0). 1986.
227-234.
Fluoride
distribution in the Jordan Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea).
by ABU-HILAL
AH
Mar.
Sci. Sta., Univ. Jordan, P.O. Box 195, Aqaba, Jordan.
In order
to evaluate the magnitude and effect of phosphate
(fluorapatite) rock particles on the distribution
of fluoride in the Jordanian sector of the Gulf of Aqaba,
sea water and sediment samples were collected from six stations
north and south of Aqaba Port. The fluoride concentrations
of the water and sediments were determined, together with
the concentrations of calcium, calcium carbonate, total
phosphorus, magnesium and organic matter in the sediments.
Normal fluoride concentrations
were found in the sea water samples, whereas abnormally
high values were found in the phosphate-polluted sediments.
These
findings and the correlations between fluoride concentrations
and those of other measured parameters are discussed.
CAS
Registry Numbers:
16984-48-8 - Fluoride
14265-44-2 - Phosphate
7723-14-0 - Phosphorus
7440-70-2 - Calcium
7439-95-4 - Magnesium
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite
471-34-1 - Calcium carbonate
ZH VSES
KHIM O-VA IM D I MENDELEEVA; 24 (1). 1979.
42-48.
Ecological
problems of the production and use of fluorine compounds.
by RODIN VI
Div.
Technol. Recovery Sec. Mater. Ind., D.I. Mendeleev Mosc.
Chem.-Technol. Inst., Moscow, USSR.
Literature
on source of environmental pollution with F and its compounds
is reviewed. Studies are cited on
the accumulation of F in the soil and in plants (carrots,
beets, cabbage, cucumbers, potatoes, grains, e.g. wheat
and corn, fruit trees, e.g. apricots, plums, peaches and
apples, pines, grasses, tea, camellias, gladioli); this
leads to F accumulation in livestock (cows and pigs) fed
with fodder yeast or other feed containing high F levels.
Problems of endemic fluorosis and osteosclerosis in humans
living in certain areas are mentioned and the negative effects
of occupational exposure to F compounds on various organs
and systems of the human body. A mutagenic action in rats
was also indicated. In addition to increasing efforts at
environmental protection and improving working conditions
in industries involving F or its compounds, serious consideration
should be given to lowering quantities of F in the drinking
water.
CAS
Registry Numbers:
16984-48-8 - Fluoride (F)
15096-52-3 - Cryolite ( Al-F6.3Na)
14542-23-5 - Fluorite (CaF2)
1318-94-1 - Muscovite ( Al.H4-O4-Si.1/3K)
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite (Ca10-F2-O4-P
and Ca5-F-O12-P3)
1302-27-8 - Biotite ( Al.F.Fe.H-O.K.Mg.O3-Si.O)
MICROB
ECOL; 4 (2). 1978 105-118
Naturally
occurring apatite as a source of orthophosphate for growth
of bacteria and algae.
by SMITH
EA, MAYFIELD CI, WONG P TS
Dep.
Biol., Univ. Waterloo, Waterloo, Ont. N2L 3G1, Can.
Several
naturally occurring Ca-phosphate apatites which varied in
crystalline structure and ionic composition were added as
crystals of different particle size to P-free (< 1 mug/l
total P) nutrient media. Sufficient %W%000006%% was released
by the partial dissolution of apatite crystals at limnetic
pH levels (pH 7.8) to support growth of several unialgal-mixed
bacterial culture. The biomass produced by mixed populations
increased as the amount of available apatite was increased
and as the pH of the media and the particle size of the
apatite crystals were decreased. Although apatite characteristically
displays reduced solubility under alkaline conditions,
the tons of apatite which are continuously entering aquatic
environments as erosion material may be contributing to
the P loading of those ecosystems. (The following
algae were examined: Ankistrodesmus braunii, A. falcatus,
Chlorella vulgaris, C. pyrenoidosa, Scenedesmus quadricauda,
S. longus, Microcystis aeruginosa, Chlamydomonas dysosmos,
C. reinhardtii, Cryptomonas sp., Ochromonas sp., Golenkinia
minutissima, Closterium sp. and Staurastrum sp.)
CAS
Registry Numbers:
1306-05-4 - Fluorapatite
Note
from EC: The
fluoride concentration in the Nauru phosphate deposits
has been estimated at 3.0%.
•
Nauru
- this
map and description is from "CIA
- The World Factbook" website
for Nauru.
Background:
Nauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early
in the 20th century... Nauru is the world's smallest
independent republic.
Location:
Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, south
of the Marshall Islands
Area
- comparative:
about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
Environment
- current issues: ...
intensive phosphate mining
during the past 90 years - mainly by a UK, Australia,
and NZ consortium - has left the central 90% of Nauru
a wasteland and threatens limited remaining land resources
Economy
- overview:
Revenues of this tiny island have traditionally come
from exports of phosphates, but reserves are now depleted...
The rehabilitation of mined
land and the replacement of income from phosphates
are serious long-term problems... |
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