ALUMINUM SODIUM FLUORIDE
CASRN: 15096-52-3 For other data, click on the Table of Contents
Human Health
Effects:
Human Toxicity Excerpts:
/CHRONIC FLUORINE POISONING
OCCURS AMONG MINERS OF CRYOLITE/
LOSS OF WEIGHT, ANOREXIA, ANEMIA, WASTING ... AND DENTAL DEFECTS ARE AMONG
COMMON FINDINGS IN CHRONIC FLUORINE POISONING. THERE MAY BE AN EOSINOPHILIA,
AND IMPAIRMENT OF GROWTH IN YOUNG WORKERS. SYMPTOMS OF INTOXICATION INCLUDE
GASTRIC, INTESTINAL, CIRCULATORY, RESP AND NERVOUS COMPLAINTS AND SKIN RASHES.
[Sax, N.I. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials.
6th ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984. 1427]**PEER REVIEWED**
ABOUT HALF OF ... CRYOLITE
WORKERS COMPLAINED OF LACK OF APPETITE, SHORTNESS OF BREATH; A SMALLER PROPORTION
MENTIONED CONSTIPATION, LOCALIZED PAIN IN REGION OF LIVER AND OTHER SYMPTOMS.
... A SLIGHT DEGREE OF FLUOROSIS WAS FOUND IN /CRYOLITE/
WORKERS EXPOSED FOR 2-2.5 YEARS WHILE MORE DEFINITE SIGNS WERE FOUND IN
THOSE EXPOSED NEARLY 5 YEARS, AND SIGNS OF MODERATE FLUOROSIS APPEARED IN
THOSE WITH MORE THAN 11 YEARS OF EXPOSURE. [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A study of the health effects
of occupational exposure to cryolite
was conducted. The study group consisted of 101 males, 21 to 67 years old,
employed in the Danish cryolite
production industry. They completed a questionnaire to obtain information
on respiratory and other work related symptoms, smoking habits, and length
of employment. The amount of exposure was determined from the length of
time employed in cryolite production.
Spirometric testing was performed. Chest x-rays were offered to five subjects
who had been employed in cryolite
production for 312 to 516 months. Smokers had significantly lower 1 second
forced expiratory volumes than nonsmokers or exsmokers. The forced epiratory
volume in 1 sec was not significantly correlated with exposure. No radiographic
abnormalities were detected. Asthma, chronic bronchitis mucosal membrane
and skin irritation, and nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea were frequently
reported by the subjects. The frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms was
highest in workers with the longest exposures. The overall frequency of
gastrointestinal symptoms, 33.7%, was significantly higher than that observed
in a random sample of the male Danish population, 3.8%. Chronic bronchitis
was significantly associated with smoking, but not exposure. /Results suggest/
that exposure to cryolite does not
seem to impair lung function. Cryolite
exposure does not seem to contribute to chronic bronchitis to the extent
that it could statisticlly compete with the effect of smoking. Cryolite
workers have a high prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms. [Friis H et al; J Soc Occupat Med 39 (4): 133-5 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... THE MAJOR MANIFESTATIONS
OF CHRONIC INGESTION OF EXCESSIVE AMT OF FLUORIDE ARE OSTEOSCLEROSIS &
MOTTLED ENAMEL. CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO EXCESS FLUORIDE CAUSES INCR OSTEOBLASTIC
ACTIVITY. ... DENSITY AND CALCIFICATION OF BONE ARE INCREASED; IN THE CASE
OF FLUORIDE INTOXICATION, IT IS THOUGHT TO REPRESENT THE REPLACEMENT OF
HYDROXYAPATITE BY THE DENSER FLUOROAPATITE. /FLUORIDE SALTS/ [Gilman, A.G., L.S.Goodman, and A. Gilman. (eds.). Goodman
and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 7th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1985. 1539]**PEER REVIEWED**
Sodium fluoride was reported
to induce unscheduled DNA synthesis in cultured human cells, and conflicting
results were obtained on the induction of chromosome aberrations; it did
not induce sister chromatid exchanges. /Sodium fluoride/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. S7 209 (1987)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A cross sectional study was
performed to clarify a possible role of atopy in the occurrence of acute
bronchoconstrictive impairment observed in workers in a plant for the electrolytic
extraction of aluminum. At the time of examination, mean hydrogen fluoride
exposure was 0.56 mg/cu m, mean particulate fluoride exposure was 0.15 mg/cu
m, and mean sulfur dioxide concentration was 3.38 mg/cu m. No information
on duration of exposure or employment is provided. Of 227 workers examined
(mean age 37, 43% current smokers) the percentage of those with a history
of atopy and positive skin tests for common allergens was within the expected
range. Six had a positive patch test with 2% sodium fluoride. Among 7 workers
with paroxysmal wheezing and dyspnea, of whom 3 were light smokers, 3 had
positive skin tests with common allergens but only 1 had an increased IgE
value. The same worker also had a positive patch test with 2% sodium fluoride.
Two had symptoms defined as chronic bronchitis. Forced expiratory volumes,
with 2 exceptions, measured at the beginning of the workshift were within
normal limits. In 5 of the 7 workers, nonspecific bronchoprovocative tests
with histamine or metacholine indicated objectively the presence of bronchial
hyperreactivty. /Sodium fluoride/ [Saric M et al; Am J Ind Med 9: 239-42 (1986)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Numerous reports of accidental
and intentional poisonings with flouride were tabulated and concluded that
a dose range of 5 to 10 g of sodium fluoride can be cited as a reasonable
estimate of a "certainly lethal (single) dose" for a 70 kg man. They noted
that this corresponds from 70 to 140 mg/kg. /Sodium fluoride/ [Hodge HD et al; Fluorine Chemistry Vol IV: p.3-518 (1965)
as cited in USEPA; Drinking Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.VI-11
(1985) EPA Contract No. 68-03-3279]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chronic poisoning: Intake of
more than 6 mg of fluoride per day results in fluorosis. Symptoms are weight
loss, brittleness of bones, anemia, weakness, general ill health, stiffness
of joints. ... /Fluoride/ [Dreisbach, R. H. Handbook of Poisoning. 9th ed. Los Altos,
California: Lange Medical Publications, 1977. 207]**PEER REVIEWED**
THERE IS SOME EVIDENCE THAT
@ INTAKE LEVELS CONSIDERABLY HIGHER THAN NORMAL THERE IS TENDENCY FOR BODY
TO BECOME DEPLETED OF /PHOSPHORUS/, OWING TO BINDING OF DIETARY PHOSPHATE
BY ALUMINUM IN DIGESTIVE TRACT. /ALUMINUM/ [Browning, E. Toxicity of Industrial Metals. 2nd ed. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969. 6]**PEER REVIEWED**
LOCALLY IN SOLN ... /ALUM IS/
RARELY IRRITATING BUT THE DRY POWDER MAY CAUSE MARKED INFLAMMATION OR CORROSION
OF THE SKIN & MUCOUS MEMBRANES. WHEN INGESTED AS CONCN SOLN OR AS SOLID
... THERE IS GI IRRITATION OR CORROSION, WITH NAUSEA, VOMITING, ABDOMINAL
PAIN & DIARRHEA. /ALUM/ [Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. 169]**PEER REVIEWED**
Nineteen young male workers
exposed occupationally from 1975-1977 to inhaled particles of aluminum experienced
breathlessness with reversible airways obstruction after an average of 4
mo employment. At standardized methacholine provocation tests, 17 of 19
workers with normal spirometry showed airway hyperreactivity with a fall
of forced expiratory volume in 1 sec of greater than or equal to 15% after
0.1% methacholine. Fifteen initially asthmatic workers were followed for
2-5 yr with methacholine provocation tests. Mean threshold dose 15%of forced
expiratory volume in 1 sec 11 workers did not change significantly after
an average of 41 mo of nonexposure. Six workers continuously exposed for
48 mo also failed to change normal airway reactivity. /Aluminum salts/ [Simonsson BG et al; Eur J Respir Dis 66 (2): 105-118 (1985)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Nuclear and chromatin fractions
were prepared from the cerebral cortex of 34 human and 37 animal brains.
Chromatin was separated into a heavy heterochromatin fraction and two euchromatin
fractions: intermediate euchromatin and light euchromatin. Compared to age
matched controls, aluminum content expressed per gram of DNA was significantly
increased in nuclear and heterochromatin fractions in pre-senile Alzheimer's
disease. In contrast, nuclear preparations from brains
of patients who had died with dialysis encephalopathy contained less aluminum
than controls, although whole tissue concn were elevated ten to fifteen
times above the control concn. Direct injection of aluminum into the cerebrospinal
fluid of cats resulted in a progressive encephalopathy with neurofibrillary
degeneration and increased intranuclear aluminum content. It is speculated
that in Alzheimer's disease, the normal blood-brain
and cytoplasmic barriers for this neurotoxic metal are defective, permitting
aluminum to gain access to DNA containing constituents of the nuclei. /Aluminum/
[Crapper DR et al; Acta Neuropath (Berl) 50 (1): 19-24 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Though the etiology of the dialysis
dementia has not been conclusively established, there is ample evidence
to implicate aluminum as the causative agent for this fatal syndrome. ...
Dialysis dementia is a severe syndrome characterized by progressive neurological
impairment, speech disorders, dysarthria, dyspraxia, dysphasia, aphemia,
amnesia, mutism, facial grimacing and myoclonus. Of sixty dialysis dementia
cases recently reviewed, 87% exhibited disturbances in communication, 66%
in cognition and 93% in movement. The onset is usually insidious, with the
first symptoms occurring after a mean of 37 mo from the beginning of the
dialysis treatment. Hesitant, stuttering, misarticulated and non-fluent
speech, difficulty in concentration, diurnal drowsiness, reduction of attention
span, poor memory, dysgraphia and twitching of limbs are usually the earliest
signs. Patients exhibit a very characteristic electroencephalogram demonstrating
paroxysmal slowing, diffuse rhythmical bursts, with diphasic or triphasic
spiked waves in the high-voltage delta frequency range in the initial early
stages and only pronounced generalized delta and theta activity late in
the course of the dialysis dementia. Reports exist on possible epileptogenic
activity arising in the middle diencephalon and a few indicate localized
cortical atrophy. Low protein content in the frontal grey matter may indicate
that dialysis encephalopathy is accompanied by defects in the blood-brain
barrier. Episodic apnea was also related to the EEG abnormality with intermittent
respiratory arrest occurring simultaneously with paroxysmal slowing. ...
The actual pathogenesis is complicated, since the symptoms are developed
in some patients and not in other equally exposed patients. This can be
attributed to the rate of exposure or peak free aluminum concn as well as
other factors, such as parathyroid hormone, that affects aluminum absorption
and/or distribution, and the impairment of some functions of the central
nervous system. /Aluminum/ [Sideman S, Manor D; Nephron 31: 1-10 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
On occasion workers chronically
exposed to aluminum containing dusts or fumes have developed severe pulmonary
reactions including fibrosis, emphysema and pneumothorax. A much rarer encephalopathy
has also been described. The factors which predispose to lung damage are
not well characterized. ... /Aluminum (dust or fumes)/ [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-128]**PEER REVIEWED**
Fluorosis. Inhalation of fluoride
poses a potential hazard in workers in primary aluminium production, but
the majority of workers are clinically unaffected. Clinical fluorosis, which
is rare, commences with stiffness in the lower back followed by pain and
then limitation of rotation of the trunk. Later, the spine becomes rigid
and stiff, with restriction of chest movement and of the large joints, particularly
the hip, that is accompanied by osteosclerosis. /Aluminum fluorides/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V34 53 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
/Aluminum (dust or powder) is
a/ respiratory and eye irritant only. /Aluminum (dust or powder)/ [National Fire Protection Association. Fire Protection Guide
on Hazardous Materials. 9th ed. Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association,
1986.,p. 49-15]**PEER REVIEWED**
The high levels of aluminum
found in the brain tissue of uremic
patients who died are thought to be the cause of dialysis encephalopathy.
Aluminum in the water supply and in phosphate binding gels is the likely
source. Aluminum toxicity also is manifested by abnormal accumulation in
bone. Osteomalacia is rare when aluminum-free dialysate is used and oral
aluminum ingestion is minimized. /Aluminum/ [American Medical Association, Department of Drugs. Drug
Evaluations. 6th ed. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association, 1986. 890]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Certain dusts produce primarily
interstitial fibrotic disease (eg, acute berylliosis, aluminosis, asbestosis)
rather than the focal nodular lesions seen in simple pneumoconiosis. Fibrotic
lesions appear out of proportion to the presence of dust-laden macrophages.
/Aluminum dust/ [Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc. 1988. 861]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazardous exposures are confined
to the production of Aluminum and the making of Aluminum abrasives; dusts
and fumes in the reduction plants consist of alumina dust and fume, cryolite,
... the fluorides of aluminum, coal tar pitch volatiles consisting of 14
identified polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and sulfur
dioxide. ... The production of aluminum abrasives, however, in which bauxite,
iron, coke, and silica are fused at 2000 deg C, poses the threat of Shaver's
disease, an often fatal and rapidly progressive interstitial fibrosis of
the lung, unless exposures are properly controlled. Present-day control
measures have almost removed the threat. [Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1494]**PEER REVIEWED**
Recently reported adverse effects
of aluminum in humans have resulted from inhalation or ingestion of aluminum
in concentrations many times greater than the amounts present in normal
circumstances. Following large oral doses of aluminum, toxic syndromes involve
gastrointestinal tract irritation and eventually, interference with phosphate
absorption, which results in rickets. Industrial exposure to high concentrations
of aluminum containing airborne dusts has resulted in a number of cases
of occupational pneumoconiosis. Most of these exposures were chronic, and
other substances were involved in nearly all instances. For example, an
asthma like disease has been reported in workers engaged in the production
of aluminum from its oxide. This condition may result from the hydrogen
fluoride that evolves from the use of fluorine bearing materials in the
production of metallic aluminum. Silicosis, aluminosis, aluminum lung, and
bauxite pneumoconiosis are the result of pulmonary fibrotic reactions to
silica and aluminum containing compounds, which have been observed in the
lung tissue in humans. Paradoxically, aluminum powder has been used in the
prevention and therapy of silicosis. The rationale is that small amounts
of metallic aluminum inhibit the solubility of siliceous materials in the
lungs or diminish their fibrogenic properties. There is no unequivocable
evidence that the procedure is clinically effective. /Aluminum/ [National Research Council. Drinking Water & Health,
Volume 4. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981. 159]**PEER REVIEWED**
Variable degrees of bony fluorosis
have been seen. The first stage of this condition consists simply of an
increase in bone density, particularly marked in the vertebral bodies and
pelvis. As fluoride is further absorbed into bone, calcification of the
ligaments of the pelvis may be seen ... In the event of extreme and protracted
exposure to fluoride, calcification of the paraspinal and other ligamentous
structures as well as about joints are noted. /Aluminum fluorides/ [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 133]**PEER REVIEWED**
A report from Italy indicated
that aluminum production workers may also suffer from pneumoconiosis. Chest
X ray examination of 119 potroom workers and a similarly sized control group
revealed tht the exposed group included significantly more cases of suspected
and definite pneumoconiosis (30%) than the control group (15%). Small inorganic
fibrous particles have been discovered in the potrooms of the Norwegian
aluminum industry. The health significance of this finding is as yet unknown.
/Aluminum/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 14]**PEER REVIEWED**
Asthma, chronic pulmonary disease
and skin lesions occur in potroom workers. Fluorosis has occurred in workers
in the aluminum production industry. /Aluminum/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V34 58 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The available epidemiological
studies provide limited evidence that ... exposures ... are carcinogenic
to humans, giving rise to cancer of the lung and bladder. A possible causative
agent is pitch fume. There is inadequate evidence that occupational exposures
in the aluminum production industry result in haematolymphopoietic and pancreatic
cancer. There is sufficient evidence that samples of particulate polynuclear
organic matter from one aluminum production plant were carcinogenic to experimental
animals. However, because of the incomplete characterization of the samples
tested, no evaluation of the carcinogenicity to experimental animals of
complex mixtures that occur in the aluminum production industry could be
made. A number of individual polynuclear aromatic compounds for which there
is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals have been
measured at high levels in air samples taken from certain areas in aluminium
production plants. Taken together, the available evidence indicates that
certain exposures in the aluminum production industry are probably carcinogenic
to humans. /Aluminum/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. V34 59 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Skin, Eye and Respiratory
Irritations:
Respiratory and eye irritant
only. /Aluminum (dust or powder)/ [National Fire Protection Association. Fire Protection Guide
on Hazardous Materials. 9th ed. Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association,
1986.,p. 49-15]**PEER REVIEWED**
Drug Warnings:
Food and Environmental Agents:
Effect on Breast-Feeding: Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on
Lactation: Fluorides: None. /from Table 7/ [Report of the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on
Drugs in Pediatrics 93 (1): 142 (1994)]**QC REVIEWED**
Medical Surveillance:
Fluoride levels in urine should
be checked periodically and all workers should be subjected to periodical
skeletal X-ray exam particularly of the pelvis. /Fluoride and cmpd/ [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 894]**PEER REVIEWED**
Populations at Special
Risk:
Populations that appear to be
at increased risk from the effects of fluoride are individuals that suffer
from diabetes insipidus or some forms of renal impairment. These high risk
populations represent a relatively small segment of the general populations.
/Fluoride/ [USEPA; Drinking Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.I-5
(1985) EPA Contract No. 68-03-3279]**PEER REVIEWED**
Probable Routes of Human
Exposure:
INTAKE OF ALUMINUM IS CHIEFLY
BY MOUTH, FROM FOODS AND BEVERAGES, ALSO BY LUNGS, FROM THE ATMOSPHERIC
DUST CONTENT. IT IS PRESENT IN NATURAL DIET, IN AMT VARYING FROM VERY LOW
IN ANIMAL PRODUCTS TO RELATIVELY HIGH IN PLANTS. /ALUMINUM/ [Browning, E. Toxicity of Industrial Metals. 2nd ed. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969. 5]**PEER REVIEWED**
/FROM RESIDUES/ ON SOME CROPS,
ESPECIALLY PEACH ... . [Farm Chemicals Handbook 1984. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister
Publishing Co., 1984.,p. C-63]**PEER REVIEWED**
ABOUT HALF OF ... CRYOLITE
WORKERS COMPLAINED OF LACK OF APPETITE, SHORTNESS OF BREATH; A SMALLER PROPORTION
MENTIONED CONSTIPATION, LOCALIZED PAIN IN REGION OF LIVER AND OTHER SYMPTOMS.
... A SLIGHT DEGREE OF FLUOROSIS WAS FOUND IN /CRYOLITE/
WORKERS EXPOSED FOR 2-2.5 YEARS WHILE MORE DEFINITE SIGNS WERE FOUND IN
THOSE EXPOSED NEARLY 5 YEARS, AND SIGNS OF MODERATE FLUOROSIS APPEARED IN
THOSE WITH MORE THAN 11 YEARS OF EXPOSURE. MOST SEVERE CASES /OF FLUOROSIS/
WERE THOSE OF MEN WHO HAD 21 YEARS OF EXPOSURE. HOWEVER, NOT ALL /CRYOLITE/
WORKERS DEVELOPED FLUOROSIS, NO ABNORMALITIES BEING DETECTED IN 1 MAN AFTER
24 YEARS OF WORK. [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... In workers in bauxite mines,
foundries, and factories. In more than 1000 exposed workers given X-ray
examinations of the chest, pulmonary changes were found in 3.5 percent of
those exposed to bauxite dust, & in 4.9 percent exposed to cryolite
dust in foundries and in factory workers exposed to alumina. [Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1499]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chronic fluorosis generally
develops after prolonged (10-20 years) exposure to industrial dusts, insecticides,
or water where fluorides exceed 3 to 4 ppm. This is especially true in workers
involved in the production of aluminum, steel, or glass. /Aluminum fluorides/
[Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc. 1988. 533]**PEER REVIEWED**
Production of aluminum sulfate
and aluminum fluoride is associated with exposure to several irritant substances.
Such production has been connected with reversible bronchial obstruction
or asthma. In an aluminum plant in Sweden, 6 cases of asthma occurred in
1975, and 7 in 1976. The number of exposed workers was 35-40. The levels
of aluminum fluoride (personal sampling) were measured during these two
years, and the mean concentrations were 3-6 mg/cu m. In 1977, improvements
were made at this plant thereby reducing the mean levels of aluminum fluoride
to 0.4-1.0 mg/cu m. During the years 1978-1980, only two cases of asthma
occurred. /Aluminum fluorides/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 15]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazards to workers, the general
population & the environment resulting from the emission of fluoride-containing
gases, smokes and dusts due to the use of cryolite
flux ... in cryolite processing
plants ... . [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 133]**PEER REVIEWED**
Electrolytic production of aluminum
can lead to a substantial exposure to fluorides and carcinogenic tar oils,
including polyaromatic hydrocarbons. /Aluminum fluorides/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Primary aluminum production
plants are located in about 40 countries. The two main methods used for
aluminum production are Soderberg and prebake, which encompass a number
of processes and job categories. Substantial exposures to airborne polynuclear
aromatic compounds have been measured in certain occupational settings in
this industry. Exposures have been higher in potrooms of plants using the
Soderberg process than in those using the prebake process; some workers
may have exposed to both process. Exposures to fluorides and a variety of
other contaminants also occur in potrooms. /Aluminum fluorides/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. 34(57)1984]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In aluminum reduction plants
... from exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles and their associated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons ... Among coke oven workers, implicating coal tar
pitch volatiles, a mutual exposure in aluminum reduction plants ... . /Aluminum/
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1500]**PEER REVIEWED**
Body Burden:
FROM ANALYSIS OF BONES OF 2
/CRYOLITE/ WORKERS ... /IT WAS/
ESTIMATED THAT THEIR SKELETAL SYSTEMS CONTAINED 50 AND 90 G OF FLUORINE,
RESPECTIVELY. THE LATTER AMT HAD BEEN DEPOSITED DURING 7500 WORKING DAYS,
CORRESPONDING TO AN AVG DEPOSITION OF 12 MG/DAY. [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A body burden of 100 mg/70 kg
man with a daily dietary intake of approximately 36.4 mg. /From table, aluminum/
[Doull, J., C.D. Klaassen, and M. D. Amdur (eds.). Casarett
and Doull's Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1980.
410]**PEER REVIEWED**
THE NORMAL BLOOD LEVEL OF ALUMINUM
IS 17 UG/100 ML AND MOST SOFT TISSUES CONTAIN BETWEEN 0.2 AND 0.6 PPM. HUMAN
BODY BURDEN OF ALUMINUM IS 50 TO 150 MG & IS APPARENTLY UNAFFECTED BY
EITHER NORMAL DAILY INTAKE LEVELS ESTIMATED TO BE APPROXIMATELY 10 TO 100
MG OR CONSIDERABLY HIGHER DOSES. /ALUMINUM/ [Doull, J., C.D. Klaassen, and M. D. Amdur (eds.). Casarett
and Doull's Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1980.
435]**PEER REVIEWED**
Aluminum content of normal human
brain ranged from 0.1-3.9 ug/g dry weight.
In a study of 208 samples taken from 7 patients, ... a mean aluminum content
of 1.9 + or - 0.07 ug/g dry weight of gray matter /was found/ to be abnormal.
In a study of 585 areas sampled from the brain
tissue of 10 patients with Alzheimer's disease they found 28% had an aluminum
concn > 4 ug/g. The range of the 585 samples was 0.4-107 ug/g. /Aluminum/
[Crapper DR et al; Brain
99: 67 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Average Daily Intake:
The daily ingestion of aluminum
by humans was estimated to be 30-50 mg. /Aluminum/ [Bjorksten JA; Comp Therapy 8: 73-6 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Emergency Medical
Treatment:
Emergency Medical Treatment:
EMT Copyright
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The following Overview, *** FLUORIDE ***, is relevant for this HSDB record
chemical.
Life Support:
o This overview assumes that basic life support measures
have been instituted.
Clinical Effects:
SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
0.2.1.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Following ingestion, sodium fluoride probably reacts
with gastric acid to produce highly corrosive HF which
may cause the nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal
pains, and acute hemorrhagic gastroenteritis reported
following massive overdose.
o In most instances, gastrointestinal signs and symptoms
predominate. Other effects include headache, numbness,
carpopedal spasm, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and
hyperkalemia. In severe poisoning hypotension and
dysrhythmias may develop. Death usually occurs from
cardiac failure or respiratory paralysis.
o Respiratory and mucous membrane irritation may develop
after inhalation.
CARDIOVASCULAR
0.2.5.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Cardiac arrhythmias consistent with hyperkalemia may be
noted. Fatal cardiac arrest occurred in several
patients with renal failure exposed to fluoride during
hemodialysis.
RESPIRATORY
0.2.6.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Respirations are first stimulated then depressed.
Death is usually from respiratory paralysis. Following
inhalation, coughing and choking may be noted.
NEUROLOGIC
0.2.7.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hyperactive reflexes, painful muscle spasms, weakness
and tetanic contractures may be noted due to fluoride
induced hypocalcemia.
GASTROINTESTINAL
0.2.8.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Epigastric pain, nausea, dysphagia, salivation,
hematemesis, and diarrhea may be noted. These effects
may be delayed for several hours following exposure.
GI symptoms are noted when 3 to 5 mg/kg of fluoride are
ingested.
FLUID-ELECTROLYTE
0.2.12.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Hyperkalemia may be noted. Hypocalcemia is likely.
DERMATOLOGIC
0.2.14.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o Urticaria and pruritus have been reported following
exposure to fluoride.
REPRODUCTIVE HAZARDS
o Prenatal fluoride supplementation (2.2 mg NaF or 1 mg
fluoride daily) during the last two trimesters of
pregnancy has been reported to be safe.
OTHER
0.2.23.1 ACUTE EXPOSURE
o CHRONIC EXPOSURE - Prolonged exposure to fluorinated
water may cause fluorosis. Signs and symptoms of
fluorosis include brittle bones, calcified ligaments,
and other crippling changes.
Laboratory:
o Monitor serum calcium, potassium, and magnesium levels
regularly in symptomatic patients.
o No other specific lab work (CBC, electrolyte, urinalysis)
is needed unless otherwise indicated.
o Monitor EKG in significant intoxications.
Treatment Overview:
ORAL EXPOSURE
o ADMINISTER milk, calcium gluconate, or calcium lactate
to bind fluoride ion in the gastrointestinal tract.
o ANTACIDS (aluminum and/or magnesium based) should be
administered.
o IV calcium (gluconate or chloride) and magnesium may be
necessary to correct serum deficits of these divalent
metals in serious overdosage.
o Monitor EKG and vital signs.
INHALATION EXPOSURE
o INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for
respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing
develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation,
bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and
assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with
beta2 agonist and corticosteroid aerosols.
EYE EXPOSURE
o DECONTAMINATION: Irrigate exposed eyes with copious
amounts of tepid water for at least 15 minutes. If
irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia
persist, the patient should be seen in a health care
facility.
DERMAL EXPOSURE
o DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash
exposed area thoroughly with soap and water. A
physician may need to examine the area if irritation or
pain persists.
Range of Toxicity:
o The estimated toxic dose is 5 to 10 mg/kg of fluoride (not
sodium fluoride). GI symptoms have occurred following
ingestion of 3 to 5 mg/kg of fluoride. Accidental
ingestion of sodium fluoride by children usually does not
present serious risk if the amount of fluoride ingested is
less than 5 mg/kg. Death has been reported following
ingestion of 16 mg/kg of fluoride. Fluoride toothpaste
typically contains a maximum of 1 milligram of fluoride
per gram of toothpaste.
TREATMENT: TO RELIEVE THE GI
DISTRESS /CAUSED BY SWALLOWING ALUMINUM SALTS/... THE DEGREE OF DEHYDRATION
& ELECTROLYTE LOSS CAUSED BY VOMITING & DIARRHEA MUST BE DETERMINED,
& CORRECTED BY IV INFUSIONS OF APPROPRIATE SOLUTIONS. /ALUMINUM SALTS/
[Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. 170]**PEER REVIEWED**
DIAGNOSIS: WHEN HISTORY IS UNATTAINABLE,
DIAGNOSIS DEPENDS ON THE DEMONSTRATION OF LARGE AMT OF ALUMINUM IN VOMITUS,
STOMACH CONTENTS OR FECES. /ALUMINUM CMPD/ [Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. 169]**PEER REVIEWED**
Deferoxamine has been used to
treat dialysis encephalopathy and osteomalacia with symptomatic relief reported.
The use of deferoxamine for aluminum-toxic dialysis patients has been suggested
for serum levels of aluminum between 100 and 200 ug/ml. Deferoxamine also
has been used to diagnose aluminum related osteodystrophy. After a deferoxamine
infusion of 40 mg/kg over 2 hours, an increment in plasma aluminum concentration
of 200 ug/l identified 35 of 37 patients with biopsy proven aluminum related
osteodystrophy (sensitivity, 94%; specificity, 50%). Calcium disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid does not appear as effective as deferoxamine in chelating aluminum.
Especially in dialysis patients, aluminum containing medications should
be reduced. /Aluminum/ [Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc. 1988. 1011]**PEER REVIEWED**
Animal Toxicity
Studies:
Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts:
... /CRYOLITE/
IS NON-PHYTOTOXIC @ INSECTICIDAL CONCN. ... IT IS OF LOW ACUTE TOXICITY
TO MAMMALS; CHRONIC INTOXICATION IS PRODUCED IN SOME ANIMAL SPECIES BY DAILY
ADMINISTRATION OF 15-150 MG/KG. [Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
ACUTE TOXICITY BY INGESTION
IS KNOWN TO BE VERY LOW (EG, IP LETHAL DOSE IN RATS IS 100 TIMES THAT OF
SODIUM FLUORIDE). [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-113]**PEER REVIEWED**
RATS INHALING A MIXTURE OF CRYOLITE
AT 0.5 MG/CU M & HYDROGEN FLUORIDE AT 0.35 MG/CU M 6 HR/DAY FOR 5 MO
SHOWED DECR PHAGOCYTIC ACTIVITY BY THEIR LEUKOCYTES. ACTIVITY RETURNED TO
NORMAL AFTER INHALATION WAS DISCONTINUED. [EGOROVA TS, SADILOVA MS; VOP GIG PROF PATOL TSVET CHERN
MET 143-7 (1971)]**PEER REVIEWED**
... The lowest oral dose (LDLO)
resulting in death for aluminum trifluoride in the guinea pig was 190 mg
aluminum/kg; subcutaneously, 965 aluminum/kg. The complex sodium aluminum
fluoride, natural cryolite, has
a reported LDLO for the rabbit of 9000 mg/kg, indicating essential nontoxicity
by this route; the synthetic form is somewhat more toxic. Intraperitoneally,
however, the LD50 for the rat is 59 mg/kg, indicating high toxicity. ...
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1496]**PEER REVIEWED**
In one study, concentrations
of aluminum ranging from 500 to 1,000 ug/g body weight were added to the
diets of pregnant rats from day 6 to day 19 of gestation, when the fetuses
were removed by Caesarean section. Aluminum in the diet did not affect embryo
or fetal mortality rate, litter size, fetal body weight, or length. However,
in a similarly designed experiment in which the pregnant mothers received
subcutaneous injections of parathyroid hormone (68 U/kg) on days 6, 9, 12,
15, or 18 of gestation, there was an increase only in the resorption rate
in those animals receiving aluminum at 1,000 ug/g body weight. /Aluminum/
[National Research Council. Drinking Water & Health,
Volume 4. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981. 165]**PEER REVIEWED**
... Animal studies show that
aluminum particles, in particular stamped aluminum powder, may cause fibrosis
of the lung whereas particles of aluminum compounds appear to be less reactive.
/Aluminum powder/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986.,p. V212]**PEER REVIEWED**
Severe aluminum intoxication
following parenteral or oral administration of aluminum hydroxide, chloride,
or sulfate to rats is characterized by lethargy, anorexia, or death. ...
Intratracheal instillation of aluminum salts or metallic aluminum powder
has produced pulmonary fibross. Injected intraperitoneally, aluminum compounds
produce fibrotic peritonitis. /Aluminum cmpd/ [National Research Council. Drinking Water & Health,
Volume 4. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981. 163]**PEER REVIEWED**
Because aluminum is only sparingly
absorbed from the gut, LD50 values for aluminum ingestion are unavailable,
since death occurs from intestinal blockage due to precipitated aluminum
species rather than systemic aluminum toxicity. /Aluminum/ [Seiler, H.G., H. Sigel and A. Sigel (eds.). Handbook on
the Toxicity of Inorganic Compounds. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1988.
60]**PEER REVIEWED**
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
fitted with dorsal aortic cannulae were exposed in a flow-through soft water
system to three acidities (pH 5.2, 4.8, or 4.4) and two concentrations of
calcium (45 or 410 uequiv/l), in the presence (105 ug/l) or absence of aluminum
in the form of aluminum chloride. Mortalities were recorded and blood was
sampled for respiratory gases, ions, metabolites, and hematology before
and at 4, 18, 28, 42, and 66 hr. Aluminum was most toxic to cannulated rainbow
trout at pH 5.2 and least toxic at pH 4.4. Higher water calcium concentrations
reduced mortality owing to aluminum at pH 5.2 and 4.8, but had no significant
effect at pH 4.4, where mortality was 0-35% in the presence or absence of
aluminum. Most fish deaths occurred between 42 and 66 hr, with the exception
of the aluminum exposure at pH 5.2, low calcium treatment, where 4 of 10
fish died at about 30 hr. Two toxic mechanisms of aluminum and acidity were
seen: ionoregulatory toxicity, which was caused by aluminum at pH 5.2 and
4.8 and by acidity at pH 4.4, and respiratory toxicity, which was caused
solely by aluminum, and was greatest at higher pH. Ionoregulatory toxicity
involved decreases in plasma sodium+ and chloride-, red cell swelling, and
hemoconcentration. Respiratory toxicity involved reduced blood oxygen tension,
elevated blood carbon dioxide tension, and increases in blood lactate. /Aluminum
chloride/ [Playle RC et al; Can J Zool 67 (2): 314-24 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... Fingerling brook trout weighing
from 1.5 to 4.0 g ... exposed to high aluminum /ion/ concn (> 0.2 mg/l)
in the lab, experienced a 3.2 to 3.5%/hr reduction in sodium content during
the first 8 hr exposure at pH 5.0. A pH of 4.6 resulted in sodium loss at
a similar rate. ... The presence of aluminum can accelerate net sodium loss
in brook trout at pH 5.0. Field experiments indicated that substantial net
sodium loss can also occur in natural settings where aluminum concn is high.
Body sodium concn data subjected to two-way analysis of variance showed
significant effects due to exposure site and time for each species /of trout/
tested. /Aluminum/ [Gagen CJ, Sharpe WE; Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 39 (1):
7-14 (1987)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Groups of ten 2 yr old brown
trout (Salmo trutta fario) were exposed for up to 96 hr using Synthetic
Laiozza, a media made up from deionized water and salts added according
to concn found in Lake Laiozza, a poorly buffered mountain lake (pH 5.3)
in the Swiss Alps (containing 105 + or - 9 ug total aluminum/l; 45 + or
- 18 ug labile aluminum/l). Synthetic Laiozza was enriched with 0, 0.125,
0.25, 0.5, and 4.0 meq sodium chloride/l media. Addition of sodium chloride
to the Synthetic Laiozza media significantly increased the MT50 (when 50%
of the exposed fish had turned over) value only when 4 meq sodium chloride
was added (MT50= 85 hr). /Aluminum/ [Dietrich D; Toxicol Environ Chem 19 (1/2): 17-23 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Total nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
kinase activity is twice as high in the aluminum tolerant wheat strain (BHG)
than in the aluminum sensitive variety (Grana). In the former the calmodulin
dependent enzyme constitutes about 50% of the total activity, whereas in
the latter it does not exceed 30%. Aluminum induced nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide kinase activity 2.5 fold in the sensitive variety Grana and
six fold in the aluminum tolerant BHG upon 10 hr incubation in 0.74 mM aluminum.
The induction, abolished by cycloheximide, involves both calmodulin dependent
and calmodulin independent enzymes in Grana, whereas in the aluminum tolerant
genotype BHG, the induction involves only the calmodulin independent form,
and the activity of the calmodulin dependent enzyme becomes marginal. Changes
in the activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide kinase are paralleled
by the shift in the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate/nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide ratio. /Aluminum/ [Slaski JJ; J Plant Physiol 133 (6): 696-701 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Effects of a low calcium, high
aluminum diet were studied in juvenile Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis).
After being fed a specially formulated diet containing 0.32% calcium, with
or without supplemental aluminum (150 mg daily) and manganese (50 daily)
for 41-46 mo, the animals exhibited mild calcium and aluminum deposition
and degenerative changes compatible with those of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
and parkinsonism, dementia in motor neurons of the spinal cord, brain
stem, substantia nigra and cerebrum. The highest number of neurons with
abnormally phosphorylated neurofilaments was observed in the two monkeys
fed the low calcium diet supplemented with aluminum and manganese. In contrast,
these abnormal neurons were not observed in a control monkey fed a normal
calcium diet. /Aluminum/ [Garruto RM et al; Acta Neuropathol 78 (2): 210-9 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Female Swiss Webster mice (6
to 8 wk old) were fed diets containing 25, 100, 500 or 1000 ug/g aluminum
for up to 10 wk. After mice had consumed their diets for either 7 or 10
wk they were killed and their brains
removed. No differences in body wt gain were observed among the groups.
After 10 wk, liver aluminum concn was significantly higher in the 1000 ug/g
aluminum group, compared to the 25 and 100 ug/g groups (p< 0.05). Levels
of aluminum in brain supernatants were
below assay detection limits (10 ug/g). Tubulin polymerization in high speed
brain supernatants was not found to
be affected by dietary aluminum. However, the addition of aluminum (1 to
50 uM, as aluminum sulfate in vitro stimulated microtubule assembly in brain
supernatants from mice fed control diets. The lowest aluminum concn that
produced significant stimulation was 10 uM (27 + or - 7%, n= 6, p< 0.05);
at 25 uM the incr of the initial velocity was 65 + or - 12% (n= 6, p<
0.01). /Aluminum/ [Oteiza PI et al; Toxicol Lett 47 (3): 279-85 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
/ACUTE POISONING/ IF SUFFICIENT
FLUORIDE IS ABSORBED ... FLUORIDE ION INCREASES CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY AND
ALSO PRODUCES A COAGULATION DEFECT. THESE ACTIONS LEAD TO HEMORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS
& HEMORRHAGES, CONGESTION, & EDEMA IN VARIOUS ORGANS INCL THE BRAIN.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS INCLUDE EXCITABILITY, MUSCLE TREMORS, WEAKNESS,
URINATION, DEFECATION, SALIVATION, EMESIS, SUDDEN COLLAPSE, CLONIC CONVULSIONS,
COMA, & DEATH DUE TO RESP & CARDIAC FAILURE. CYANOSIS & EARLY
RIGOR MORTIS ... . /FLUORIDE/ [Booth, N.H., L.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology
and Therapeutics. 5th ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1982.
1014]**PEER REVIEWED**
After intraperitoneal administration
of a single large dose of fluoride (sodium fluoride, 35 mg/kg body weight),
the calcium contents of the renal cortex and medulla of fluoride intoxicated
rats were increased by 33 and 10 times, respectively. /Sodium fluoride/
[Suketa Y et al; Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 39: 313-19 (1977)
as cited in WHO; Environ Health Criteria 36: Fluorine and Fluorides p.54
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The ionic fluoride levels in
plasma following intraperitoneal administration of 15, 20, or 25 mg of fluoride
per kg body weight to 200 g rats /was studied/. In animals given 25 mg/kg,
the mean ionic fluoride level in plasma was 38 mg/liter after 10 min and
the animals invariably died within 1 hr. All animals receiving 15 or 20
mg/kg survived, despite mean ionic fluoride levels in plasma of 22.9 and
29.2 mg/l, respectively. /Sodium fluoride/ [Singer L et al; Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 157: 363-68 (1978)
as cited in WHO; Environ Health Criteria 36: Fluorine and Fluorides p.53
(1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Typical symptoms of acute toxicity
are reduction or loss of appetite, local or general congestion, and sub-mucosal
hemorrhages of the gastrointestinal tract. Such acute responses were recognized
when chickens were fed for 10 days on a diet containing 6786 mg fluoride/kg
(as sodium fluoride). Roosters receiving sodium fluoride at 200 mg/kg body
weight, twice in 24 hr, developed gastroenteritis with edema of the mucosa
of the stomach and upper bowels, subcutaneous edema, hepatomegaly, and atrophy
of the pancreas. /Sodium fluoride/ [Cass JS; J Occup Med 3: 471-77, 527-43 (1966) as cited in
WHO; Environ Health Criteria 36: Fluorine and Fluorides p.49 (1984)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
No effect of sodium fluoride
in drinking water on the frequency of sister chromatid exchange in mice
/were found/. Twelve week old mice were taken from colonies which had been
maintained for at least the seven prior generations on a low fluoride diet
(estimated to equal less than 0.1 mg/kg/day) or a high fluoride diet (50
ppm estimated to equal 10 mg/kg/day). Sodium fluoride was added to the drinking
water of the group exposed to 50 ppm fluoride. Sister chromatid exchange
status was identified in a separate laboratory with no knowledge of the
fluoride status of the animals. No significant differences in sister chromatid
exchange status were found between the low and high fluoride groups. /Sodium
fluoride/ [Kram D et al; Mutat Res 57: 51-55 (1978) as cited in USEPA;
Drinking Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.V-29 (1985) EPA Contract
No. 68-03-3279]**PEER REVIEWED**
In a chronic study, mice (female,
CSE mice, 3 to 4 weeks old, initially weighing 22.5 to 25.5 g) were given
drinking water containing 1 to 6 mg fluoride (as sodium flouride)/l for
six months. No histological effects attributable to fluoride were seen in
the heart, stomach, intestines, or bones. /Sodium fluoride/ [Hansen K; Bios 19: 51-55 (1978) as cited in USEPA; Drinking
Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.V-27 (1985) EPA Contract No. 68-03-3279]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The acute and subacute physiological
and pathological effects of fluoride (as sodium fluoride) administered intravenously
and orally to male and female dogs /were described/. When fluoride was infused
intravenously in four dogs at the rate of 5.4 mg fluoride/min, the mean
acute lethal dose was 36.0 + or - 0.5 mg fluoride/kg with death occurring
after 59 to 64 minutes of infusion. The principal effects observed were
a progressive decline in blood pressure, heart rate, central nervous system
activity (pupil size, response to light, tendon reflexes) with vomiting
and defecation. /Sodium fluoride/ [Leone NC et al; Public Health Rep 71: 459-67 (1956) as cited
in USEPA; Drinking Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.III-9 (1985) EPA
Contract No. 68-03-3279]**PEER REVIEWED**
... LAMENESS; PAINFUL, STIFF
GAIT OR POSTURE; DECR FEED INTAKE; ANOREXIA; ROUGH HAIRCOAT; EMACIATION;
& DECR MILK PRODUCTION. BONY EXOSTOSES ... TEETH HAVE ... MOTTLING &
PATCHY LOSS OF DENTINE. ... SPONTANEOUS FRACTURES MAY OCCUR. ... LESIONS
CONSIST OF HYPEROSTOSIS, POROSIS, ENLARGEMENT ... ROUGHENING. /FLUORIDE/
[Jones, L.M., et al. Veterinary Pharmacology & Therapeutics.
4th ed. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1977. 1275]**PEER REVIEWED**
Nuclear and chromatin fractions
were prepared from the cerebral cortex of ... 37 animal brains.
Chromatin was separated into a heavy heterochromatin fraction and two euchromatin
fractions: intermediate euchromatin and light euchromatin. ... Direct injection
of aluminum into the cerebrospinal fluid of cats resulted in a progressive
encephalopathy with neurofibrillary degeneration and increased intranuclear
aluminum content. /Aluminum/ [Crapper DR et al; Acta Neuropath (Berl) 50 (1): 19-24 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Subcutaneous implants of aluminum
foil and repeated subcutaneous injections of aluminum-dextran (0.2 ml dose
not given) in rats and mice have produced sarcomas at the site of instillation
or injection. On the other hand, intraperitoneally administered aluminum
nitrate has inhibited the growth of a transplanted carcinoma in rodents.
[Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986.,p. V2 20]**PEER REVIEWED**
Aluminum compounds have been
evaluated as non-mutagenic by most standard methods of mutagenic assays.
/Aluminum cmpd/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 20]**PEER REVIEWED**
Non-Human Toxicity Values:
LD50 Rat ip 59 mg/kg [Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1496]**PEER REVIEWED**
Ecotoxicity Values:
EC50 Simocephalus 5.0 mg/l/48
hr at 15 deg C, first instar (95% confidence limit 3.6-6.8 mg/l) Static
bioassay without aeration, pH 7.2-7.5, water hardness 40-50 mg/l as calcium
carbonate and alkalinity of 30-35 mg/l. /Technical material, 96%/ [U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Handbook of Acute Toxicity of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates.
Resource Publication No. 137. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,
1980. 23]**PEER REVIEWED**
EC50 Daphnia pulex 10.0 mg/l/48
hr at 15 deg C, first instar (95% confidence limit 7.6-13.0 mg/l) Static
bioassay without aeration, pH 7.2-7.5, water hardness 40-50 mg/l as calcium
carbonate and alkalinity of 30-35 mg/l. /Technical material, 96%/ [U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Handbook of Acute Toxicity of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates.
Resource Publication No. 137. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,
1980. 23]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Rainbow trout 47.0 mg/l/96
hr at 12 deg C, wt 1.8 g Static bioassay without aeration, pH 7.2-7.5, water
hardness 40-50 mg/l as calcium carbonate and alkalinity of 30-35 mg/l. /Technical
material, 96%/ [U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Handbook of Acute Toxicity of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates.
Resource Publication No. 137. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,
1980. 23]**PEER REVIEWED**
LC50 Bluegill more than 400
mg/l/96 hr at 24 deg C, wt 0.8 g Static bioassay without aeration, pH 7.2-7.5,
water hardness 40-50 mg/l as calcium carbonate and alkalinity of 30-35 mg/l.
/Technical material, 96%/ [U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
Handbook of Acute Toxicity of Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates.
Resource Publication No. 137. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice,
1980. 23]**PEER REVIEWED**
Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics:
Absorption, Distribution
& Excretion:
MEAN CONCN OF FLUORINE IN URINE
OF ... WORKERS WAS 16.05 MG/L, RANGE BEING 2.41-43.41 MG/L. IN THOSE WITH
LESS SEVERE EXPOSURE, MEAN URINARY CONCN WAS 4.81 MG/L WITH A RANGE OF 1.78-11.67
MG/L. /FLUORINE/ [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
MALE RATS ELIMINATED 45.9% OF
FLUORIDE WHICH HAD BEEN ADMIN ORALLY AS CRYOLITE.
OF TISSUES ANALYZED, ONLY KIDNEY AND FEMUR SHOWED ANY CORRELATION WITH AMT
OF FLUORIDE ABSORBED OR RETAINED. [WRIGHT DA, THOMPSON A; BR J NUTR 40 (1): 139-48 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Exposure to cryolite
dust may result in skeletal fluorosis. Eight male workers at a cryolite
concentrator participated in a 4 day study after 5 days of vacation. Dust
exposures were 0.16 to 21.2 mg/cu m. Urine was collected before work began
and during two 4 hr periods. Preshift urine fluoride concentrations increased
during the week. Fluoride concentrations in postshift urine and serum both
correlated with the dust exposures. Serum fluoride concentrations decreased
with a half-life of 3.3 to 6.9 hr after work. Fluoride clearance was 40.5
ml/min at urinary flow rates of 0.89 to 2.21 ml/min. Serum aluminum concentrations
varied without relation to the exposure, but the urinary aluminum excretion
correlated with the fluoride levels. Preshift serum phosphate concentrations
increased significantly during the week, possibly indicating changes in
mineral metabolism. For monitoring of individual uptake of cryolite
dust, serum fluoride measurements are most useful. [Grandjean P et al; J Occup Med 32 (10: 58-63 (1990)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
It was calculated that a dialysate
aluminum concn of 0.2-1.0 mg/l (a concn readily found in many water supplies)
would result in the direct transfer of aluminum into the blood of 3-16 mg
for each dialysis treatment or 42-211 mg/mo. /Aluminum/ [Rosas VV et al; Arch Intern Med 138: 1375 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A given oral dose of aluminum
results in significantly higher serum and tissue levels of the metal in
nephrectomized rats than in intact controls in spite of the fact that only
minimal amounts of aluminum are normally excreted in the urine. /Aluminum/
[Berlyne GM et al; Lancet 1: 564 (1972)]**PEER REVIEWED**
It was found that 70-90% of
total aluminum bound to plasma proteins (60-70% to a high molecular weight
protein and 10-20% to albumin while only 10-30% was unbound). This high
affinity of aluminum for plasma proteins strongly suggests high levels of
binding of aluminum to a variety of tissue proteins. /Aluminum/ [Elliott HL et al; Lancet 2: 1255 (1978)]**PEER REVIEWED**
It was shown that the uptake
of aluminum into the blood during renal dialysis was due to the extensive
binding of aluminum to plasma proteins leaving very little aluminum in the
non-bound state in plasma. Thus, the plasma proteins served as a trap for
accumulating the metal. It was shown that the component of plasma protein
that binds aluminum is saturable. Consistent with this ... is the fact that,
during dialysis with aluminum-containing dialysate, plasma aluminum levels
reach a plateau. /Aluminum/ [Kaehny WD et al; Kidney Int 12: 361-5 (1977)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Renal clearance of aluminum
has been shown to be approximately 5-10% of that of urea or creatinine clearance.
This is entirely consistent with the marked protein binding of aluminum
in plasma, thus leaving only a small fraction of the total aluminum available
for filtration in the kidney. /Aluminum/ [Berlyn GM et al; Lancet 2: 494-6 (1970)]**PEER REVIEWED**
In dogs undergoing renal dialysis
ligation of the ureter (resulting in cessation of urinary output), there
is a greater increase in plasma aluminum concn than in intact dogs undergoing
comparable dialysis. This indicates That the kidney is responsible for the
elimination of a major portion of absorbed aluminum. /Aluminum/ [Kovalchik MT et al; J Lab Clin Med 92: 712 (1978)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
The 200-300 mg of aluminum/kg
tissue weight is most likely due to local deposition of particulate aluminum
from the air following inhalation and not due to a specific predilection
of lung tissue for aluminum. Aluminum has been reported in both non-urban
and urban air with the latter containing as much as 10 ug/cu m. /Aluminum/
[Norseth T; Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals Chapter
15 (1979)]**PEER REVIEWED**
The aluminum content of gray
matter of brain (essentially the inner
cellular mass of the brain) was not
significantly different than that in the white
matter (the outer myelinated fibers of the brain).
/Aluminum/ [Alfry AC et al; NEJM 294: 184 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**
SINCE LITTLE ALUMINUM IS ABSORBED,
IT IS EXCRETED IN THE FECES, MUCH OF IT IN THE FORM OF ALUMINUM PHOSPHATE.
THERE IS NO INCR IN THE AMT OF ALUMINUM IN TISSUES, EXCEPT IN BONE (ANIMAL
EXPERIMENTS). /ALUMINUM/ [Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. 169]**PEER REVIEWED**
AMT OF ALUMINUM IN TISSUES,
ORGANS, BLOOD & URINE IS SMALL. ADULT HUMAN BODY MAY CONTAIN 50-150
MG ... AFTER INGESTION OF LARGE AMT VERY LITTLE APPEARS IN URINE ... BETWEEN
50 & 100 MG DAILY FOR ABOUT 70 DAYS. /ALUMINUM/ [Browning, E. Toxicity of Industrial Metals. 2nd ed. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969. 5]**PEER REVIEWED**
Cations that form insoluble
phosphates interfere with the absorption of phosphorus. For example, high
intakes of aluminum decrease absorption of phosphorus (as phosphate) by
forming insoluble aluminum phosphate and increasing the excretory loss of
phosphorus. /Aluminum/ [National Research Council. Drinking Water and Health. Volume
3. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1980. 278]**PEER REVIEWED**
Absorption of inhaled aluminum
compounds has not been studied in detail; one reason for this is probably
the fact that no stable radioactive isotope of aluminum is available. Workers
exposed to aluminum in connection with the production of raw aluminum, aluminum
sulfate, corundum or welding of aluminum have elevated levels of aluminum
in urine. This is evidence of pulmonary absorption. ... Total urinary elimination
of aluminum /was measured/ in three volunteers exposed to respirable aluminum
fume from welding. The urinary excretion was 0.1-0.3% of the estimated inhaled
amount. In experimental animals exposed to aluminum oxide as well as in
humans occupationally exposed to aluminum particles, inhaled or deposited
particles of aluminum may be retained in the lungs over long periods of
time. /Aluminum cmpd/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986.,p. V2 7]**PEER REVIEWED**
Studies ... strongly suggest
that aluminum in the gastrointestinal tract and its subsequent distribution
in tissue can be influenced by increasing the concentration of parathyroid
hormone. Male rats were fed aluminum as 0.1% of their diet for 25 days.
The ready absorption of aluminum from the gastrointestinal tract of these
normal rats was enhanced by injections of parathyroid hormone (17 U twice
weekly). There was also increased deposition of the metal in the kidney,
muscle, bone, and the gray matter of the brain,
but not in the liver or in the white matter
of the brain. Thus, the parathyroid
hormone exerted a specific effect on the absorption and distribution of
aluminum. In 1977, a positive correlation between increased serum parathyroid
hormone and serum aluminum levels in dialysis patients ... had been reported.
/Aluminum/ [National Research Council. Drinking Water & Health,
Volume 4. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981. 157]**PEER REVIEWED**
Trace determination of aluminum
was carried out in blood samples from 11 patients with chronic renal failure
undergoing periodical hemodialysis treatment. Analysis for aluminum was
made by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry in samples taken
at the beginning and end of dialysis, and of dialysate from the inflow (pre)
and outflow (post) lines of dialyzers. Healthy individuals, without history
of renal disease, were used as controls. The aluminum concn in pre- and
post-dialysis whole blood was 58 + or - 9 ug/l and 139 + or - 19 ug/l, respectively.
The aluminum concn in pre- and post-dialysate was 235 + or - 39 ug/l and
129 + or - 10 ug/l, respectively. Blood aluminum concn of control subjects
did not show significant differences when compared with data reported by
other authors. Aluminum was transferred to the patients' blood during the
dialysis treatments, because of the high metal content tap water used to
prepare the dialysates. /Aluminum/ [Navarro JA et al; Trace Elem Med 6 (2): 70-4 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
ALUMINUM SALTS ARE ABSORBED
IN ... SMALL AMT FROM THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. /ALUMINUM SALTS/ [Thienes, C., and T.J. Haley. Clinical Toxicology. 5th ed.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1972. 169]**PEER REVIEWED**
25 Preterm infants with birth
wt 540 to 2280 g (20 with birth wt < 1500 g) and gestational ages 24
to 37 wk, were studied to determine the response to 2 levels of aluminum
loading from currently unavoidable contamination of various components of
parenteral nutrition soln. The high aluminum loading group received solutions
with measured aluminum content of 306 + or - 16 ug/l and the low aluminum
loading group received solutions with 144 + or - 16 ug aluminum/l. Urine
aluminum:creatinine ratios (ug:mg) became elevated and significantly higher
in the high aluminum group (1.6 + or - 0.38 vs 0.5 + or - 0.1 at the third
sampling point (mean 19 days). Serum aluminum concn were highest at onset
in both groups and stabilized with study but remained consistently higher
than the normal median of 18 ug/l. Calculated urine aluminum excretions
were consistently low and were 34 + or - 6% vs 28 + or - 5% in the high
and low groups, respectively. In both groups, urine aluminum excretions
were significantly lower than the calculated aluminum intakes. One infant
in the low group who died 39 days after termination of the study showed
the presence of aluminum in bone trabeculae and excessive unmineralized
osteoid along the trabeculae. /Aluminum/ [Koo WWK et al; J Parenter Enteral Nutr 13 (5): 516-9 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
/Studies in man revealed/ peak
serum levels are reached within a half hour, and levels fall promptly, with
20% of a given dose being excreted in the urine within 4 hr. /Sodium fluoride/
[Haddad, L.M. and Winchester, J.F. Clinical Management of
Poisoning and Drug Overdosage. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co., 1983.
691]**PEER REVIEWED**
FLUORIDES ARE ABSORBED FROM
GI TRACT, LUNG, & SKIN. GI TRACT IS MAJOR SITE OF ABSORPTION. THE RELATIVELY
SOL CMPD, SUCH AS SODIUM FLUORIDE, ARE ALMOST COMPLETELY ABSORBED. ... FLUORIDE
HAS BEEN DETECTED IN ALL ORGANS & TISSUES EXAMINED. ... THERE IS NO
EVIDENCE THAT IT IS CONCENTRATED IN ANY TISSUES EXCEPT BONE, THYROID, AORTA,
& PERHAPS KIDNEY. FLUORIDE IS PREPONDERANTLY DEPOSITED IN THE SKELETON
& TEETH, & THE DEGREE OF SKELETAL STORAGE IS RELATED TO INTAKE AND
AGE. ... MAJOR ROUTE OF ... EXCRETION IS BY WAY OF KIDNEYS; ... ALSO EXCRETED
IN SMALL AMT BY SWEAT GLANDS, LACTATING BREAST, & GI TRACT. ... ABOUT
90% OF FLUORIDE ION FILTERED BY GLOMERULUS IS REABSORBED BY RENAL TUBULES.
/FLUORIDE/ [Gilman, A.G., L.S.Goodman, and A. Gilman. (eds.). Goodman
and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 7th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1985. 1539]**PEER REVIEWED**
/RENAL CLEARANCE/ 1. VIRTUALLY
ALL FLUORIDE IN PLASMA ... IS ULTRAFILTERABLE. 2. RENAL EXCRETION OF RADIOFLUORIDE
DEPENDS ON GLOMERULAR FILTRATION & VARIABLE TUBULAR REABSORPTION. 3.
PROBABLY, REABSORPTION IS LARGELY PASSIVE ... 4. FLUORIDE EXCRETION INCR
WHEN PLASMA CONCN IS INCREASED. 5. PROCEDURES THAT INCREASE URINARY FLOW
RATE (EG, ADMIN OF OSMOTIC DIURETICS, HYPERTONIC SALINE, OR DIURETIC DRUGS)
INCREASE THE CLEARANCE OF FLUORIDE. /FLUORIDE/ [National Research Council. Drinking Water & Health Volume
1. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1977. 376]**PEER REVIEWED**
RATS GIVEN (18)FLUORIDE ION
AS A RADIOTRACER BY CONTINUOUS IV INFUSION OF SODIUM FLUORIDE FOR 3 HR SHOWED
AT SUBLETHAL DOSE RATES, BLOOD FLUORIDE CONCN NEARS STEADY STATE PROPORTIONAL
TO FLUORIDE INFUSION RATE. BLOOD, KIDNEY, & LUNG HAD HIGHEST CONCN @
DOSES UP TO 3 MG FLUORIDE/KG/HR, BUT @ 6 MG/KG/HR THE FLUORIDE OF THE LIVER,
SPLEEN & HOLLOW ORGANS INCR SHARPLY. AMT ABOVE THIS WAS NOT WELL PROCESSED
BY EXCRETORY MECHANISM. RATS INFUSED 3 HR WITH 6 MG FLUORIDE/KG/HR: DURING
INFUSION FLUORIDE CONCN OF BONE & OTHER TISSUES WAS HIGH, BONE THE HIGHEST.
OF SOFT TISSUES, LUNG HAD THE HIGHEST, BRAIN,
TESTES, & FAT PADS THE LEAST CONCN. DURING DEPLETION PHASE, TISSUE FLUORIDE
CONCN DECR, BONE FLUORIDE REMAINED CONSTANT, & SUBSTANTIAL AMOUNT REMAINED
IN THE LUNG. /SODIUM FLOURIDE/ [KNAUS RM ET AL; TOX APPL PHARM 38 (2): 335-43 (1976)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Following ingestion, soluble
fluorides are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract at least
to the extent of 97%. Absorbed fluoride is distributed throughout the tissues
of the body by the blood. Fluoride concentrations in soft tissues fall to
pre-exposure levels within a few hours of exposure. Fluoride exchange with
hydroxyl radicals of hydroxyapatite (the inorganic constituent of bone)
to form fluorohydroxyapatite. Fluoride that is not retained is excreted
rapidly in urine. In adults under steady state intake conditions, the urinary
concentration of fluoride tends to approximate the concentration of fluoride
in the drinking water. This reflects the decreasing retention of fluoride
(primarily in bone) with increasing age. Under certain conditions perspiration
may be an important route of fluoride excretion. The concentration of fluoride
retained in bones and teeth is a function of both the concentration of fluoride
intake and the duration of exposure. Periods of excessive fluoride exposure
will result in increased retention in the bone. However, when the excessive
exposure is eliminated, the bone fluoride concentration will decrease to
a concentration that is again reflective of intake. /Fluoride/ [USEPA; Drinking Water Criteria Document for Fluoride p.III-19
(1985) EPA Contract No. 68-03-3279]**PEER REVIEWED**
Biological Half-Life:
The mean plasma half-life of
aluminum after iv admin in dogs is approx 4.5 hr. /Aluminum/ [Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc. 1988. 1009]**PEER REVIEWED**
The shorter half-life for the
urinary elimination of aluminum was about 8 hr. /Aluminum/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986.,p. V12 10]**PEER REVIEWED**
Mechanism of Action:
The mechanism of action of orally
and topically administered fluorides in reducing tooth decay are not fully
understood. Fluoride ions are incorporated into and stabilize the apatite
crystal of teeth and bone. /Fluorides/ [American Hospital Formulary Service-Drug Information 88.
Bethesda, MD: American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 1988 (Plus supplements).
2158]**PEER REVIEWED**
FLUORIDE IS VERY REACTIVE AND
CAPABLE OF INHIBITING A NUMBER OF ENZYMES, INCL PREGLYCOLYTIC ENZYMES, PHOSPHATASES,
AND CHOLINESTERASE. THE RESULT IS INHIBITION OF CELLULAR GLUCOSE PHOSPHORYLATION
(HENCE SUBSEQUENT GLYCOLYSIS) AND RESPIRATION AND INCR SENSITIVITY OF CHOLINERGIC
MECHANISMS TO ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE. /SODIUM FLUORIDE/ [Booth, N.H., L.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology
and Therapeutics. 5th ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1982.
1014]**PEER REVIEWED**
INHIBITION OF ONE OR MORE ENZYMES
CONTROLLING CELLULAR GLYCOLYSIS (& PERHAPS RESP) MAY RESULT IN A CRITICAL
LESION. ... BINDING OR PRECIPITATION OF CALCIUM AS CALCIUM FLUORIDE ...
SUGGESTED AS MECHANISM UNDERLYING MANY DIVERSE SIGNS & SYMPTOMS IN FLUORIDE
POISONING, PARTICULARLY IF DEATH IS DELAYED. ... AT LEAST IN SOME SPECIES
FLUORIDE INTERFERES WITH BOTH CONTRACTILE POWER OF HEART AND THE MECHANISM
OF BEAT IN A WAY THAT CANNOT BE ASCRIBED TO HYPOCALCEMIA. /FLUORIDE/ [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-112]**PEER REVIEWED**
Interactions:
Groups of 120 Atlantic salmon
fry (Salmo salar, 1 g mass) were kept in through-flow tanks of water (pH
5) containing various concn of aluminum and silicic acid. The aluminum concn
in all but the control tank (0.85 umol aluminum/l) were 6-7 umol/l, at acutely
toxic levels. Silicon levels were 0.66 umol/l (control), 93.06, 24.89, 5.46,
and 0.60 umol/l, corresponding to silicon:aluminum ratios of 13.0, 3.7,
0.9, and 0.1. Exchangeable aluminum, ie, aluminum retained on Amberlite,
was 6.00, 5.00, 4.11, and 1.52 umol/l in test tanks, respectively. Fish
were exposed for 96 hr, and the proportion of dead fish was recorded at
12 hr intervals. The whole experiment was run three times; data are from
all runs combined. At a silicon:aluminum ratio of 13, acute toxicity of
aluminum was eliminated and gill structures of the fish were normal. Percent
survival versus time was higher for the higher silicon:aluminum ratio groups.
Accumulation of aluminum by fish fell sharply as the exchangeable aluminum
increased. Aluminum and silicon levels in fish were 0.44 and 0.01 (control),
0.40 and 0.54 (silicon:aluminum ratio of 13), 2.04 and 0.35 (silicon:aluminum
ratio of 3.7), 2.49 and 0.33 (silicon:aluminum ratio of 0.9), 2.38 and 0.08
(silicon:aluminum ratio of 0.1) umol per g dry mass, respectively. /Aluminum/
[Birchall JD et al; Nature 338 (6211): 146-8 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... PRETREATMENT OF RATS WITH
FLUORIDE INCR THEIR SENSITIVITY TO SUCCINYLCHOLINE, DEMETON & PARATHION.
/FLUORIDE/ [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-112]**PEER REVIEWED**
Pharmacology:
Drug Warnings:
Food and Environmental Agents:
Effect on Breast-Feeding: Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on
Lactation: Fluorides: None. /from Table 7/ [Report of the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on
Drugs in Pediatrics 93 (1): 142 (1994)]**QC REVIEWED**
Interactions:
Groups of 120 Atlantic salmon
fry (Salmo salar, 1 g mass) were kept in through-flow tanks of water (pH
5) containing various concn of aluminum and silicic acid. The aluminum concn
in all but the control tank (0.85 umol aluminum/l) were 6-7 umol/l, at acutely
toxic levels. Silicon levels were 0.66 umol/l (control), 93.06, 24.89, 5.46,
and 0.60 umol/l, corresponding to silicon:aluminum ratios of 13.0, 3.7,
0.9, and 0.1. Exchangeable aluminum, ie, aluminum retained on Amberlite,
was 6.00, 5.00, 4.11, and 1.52 umol/l in test tanks, respectively. Fish
were exposed for 96 hr, and the proportion of dead fish was recorded at
12 hr intervals. The whole experiment was run three times; data are from
all runs combined. At a silicon:aluminum ratio of 13, acute toxicity of
aluminum was eliminated and gill structures of the fish were normal. Percent
survival versus time was higher for the higher silicon:aluminum ratio groups.
Accumulation of aluminum by fish fell sharply as the exchangeable aluminum
increased. Aluminum and silicon levels in fish were 0.44 and 0.01 (control),
0.40 and 0.54 (silicon:aluminum ratio of 13), 2.04 and 0.35 (silicon:aluminum
ratio of 3.7), 2.49 and 0.33 (silicon:aluminum ratio of 0.9), 2.38 and 0.08
(silicon:aluminum ratio of 0.1) umol per g dry mass, respectively. /Aluminum/
[Birchall JD et al; Nature 338 (6211): 146-8 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... PRETREATMENT OF RATS WITH
FLUORIDE INCR THEIR SENSITIVITY TO SUCCINYLCHOLINE, DEMETON & PARATHION.
/FLUORIDE/ [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-112]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental
Fate & Exposure:
Probable Routes of Human
Exposure:
INTAKE OF ALUMINUM IS CHIEFLY
BY MOUTH, FROM FOODS AND BEVERAGES, ALSO BY LUNGS, FROM THE ATMOSPHERIC
DUST CONTENT. IT IS PRESENT IN NATURAL DIET, IN AMT VARYING FROM VERY LOW
IN ANIMAL PRODUCTS TO RELATIVELY HIGH IN PLANTS. /ALUMINUM/ [Browning, E. Toxicity of Industrial Metals. 2nd ed. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969. 5]**PEER REVIEWED**
/FROM RESIDUES/ ON SOME CROPS,
ESPECIALLY PEACH ... . [Farm Chemicals Handbook 1984. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister
Publishing Co., 1984.,p. C-63]**PEER REVIEWED**
ABOUT HALF OF ... CRYOLITE
WORKERS COMPLAINED OF LACK OF APPETITE, SHORTNESS OF BREATH; A SMALLER PROPORTION
MENTIONED CONSTIPATION, LOCALIZED PAIN IN REGION OF LIVER AND OTHER SYMPTOMS.
... A SLIGHT DEGREE OF FLUOROSIS WAS FOUND IN /CRYOLITE/
WORKERS EXPOSED FOR 2-2.5 YEARS WHILE MORE DEFINITE SIGNS WERE FOUND IN
THOSE EXPOSED NEARLY 5 YEARS, AND SIGNS OF MODERATE FLUOROSIS APPEARED IN
THOSE WITH MORE THAN 11 YEARS OF EXPOSURE. MOST SEVERE CASES /OF FLUOROSIS/
WERE THOSE OF MEN WHO HAD 21 YEARS OF EXPOSURE. HOWEVER, NOT ALL /CRYOLITE/
WORKERS DEVELOPED FLUOROSIS, NO ABNORMALITIES BEING DETECTED IN 1 MAN AFTER
24 YEARS OF WORK. [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
... In workers in bauxite mines,
foundries, and factories. In more than 1000 exposed workers given X-ray
examinations of the chest, pulmonary changes were found in 3.5 percent of
those exposed to bauxite dust, & in 4.9 percent exposed to cryolite
dust in foundries and in factory workers exposed to alumina. [Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1499]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chronic fluorosis generally
develops after prolonged (10-20 years) exposure to industrial dusts, insecticides,
or water where fluorides exceed 3 to 4 ppm. This is especially true in workers
involved in the production of aluminum, steel, or glass. /Aluminum fluorides/
[Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc. 1988. 533]**PEER REVIEWED**
Production of aluminum sulfate
and aluminum fluoride is associated with exposure to several irritant substances.
Such production has been connected with reversible bronchial obstruction
or asthma. In an aluminum plant in Sweden, 6 cases of asthma occurred in
1975, and 7 in 1976. The number of exposed workers was 35-40. The levels
of aluminum fluoride (personal sampling) were measured during these two
years, and the mean concentrations were 3-6 mg/cu m. In 1977, improvements
were made at this plant thereby reducing the mean levels of aluminum fluoride
to 0.4-1.0 mg/cu m. During the years 1978-1980, only two cases of asthma
occurred. /Aluminum fluorides/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 15]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazards to workers, the general
population & the environment resulting from the emission of fluoride-containing
gases, smokes and dusts due to the use of cryolite
flux ... in cryolite processing
plants ... . [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 133]**PEER REVIEWED**
Electrolytic production of aluminum
can lead to a substantial exposure to fluorides and carcinogenic tar oils,
including polyaromatic hydrocarbons. /Aluminum fluorides/ [Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B.
(eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986. 1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Primary aluminum production
plants are located in about 40 countries. The two main methods used for
aluminum production are Soderberg and prebake, which encompass a number
of processes and job categories. Substantial exposures to airborne polynuclear
aromatic compounds have been measured in certain occupational settings in
this industry. Exposures have been higher in potrooms of plants using the
Soderberg process than in those using the prebake process; some workers
may have exposed to both process. Exposures to fluorides and a variety of
other contaminants also occur in potrooms. /Aluminum fluorides/ [IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk
of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency
for Research on Cancer,1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work).,p. 34(57)1984]**PEER
REVIEWED**
In aluminum reduction plants
... from exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles and their associated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons ... Among coke oven workers, implicating coal tar
pitch volatiles, a mutual exposure in aluminum reduction plants ... . /Aluminum/
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1500]**PEER REVIEWED**
Body Burden:
FROM ANALYSIS OF BONES OF 2
/CRYOLITE/ WORKERS ... /IT WAS/
ESTIMATED THAT THEIR SKELETAL SYSTEMS CONTAINED 50 AND 90 G OF FLUORINE,
RESPECTIVELY. THE LATTER AMT HAD BEEN DEPOSITED DURING 7500 WORKING DAYS,
CORRESPONDING TO AN AVG DEPOSITION OF 12 MG/DAY. [Patty, F. (ed.). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume
II: Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963. 841]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A body burden of 100 mg/70 kg
man with a daily dietary intake of approximately 36.4 mg. /From table, aluminum/
[Doull, J., C.D. Klaassen, and M. D. Amdur (eds.). Casarett
and Doull's Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1980.
410]**PEER REVIEWED**
THE NORMAL BLOOD LEVEL OF ALUMINUM
IS 17 UG/100 ML AND MOST SOFT TISSUES CONTAIN BETWEEN 0.2 AND 0.6 PPM. HUMAN
BODY BURDEN OF ALUMINUM IS 50 TO 150 MG & IS APPARENTLY UNAFFECTED BY
EITHER NORMAL DAILY INTAKE LEVELS ESTIMATED TO BE APPROXIMATELY 10 TO 100
MG OR CONSIDERABLY HIGHER DOSES. /ALUMINUM/ [Doull, J., C.D. Klaassen, and M. D. Amdur (eds.). Casarett
and Doull's Toxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1980.
435]**PEER REVIEWED**
Aluminum content of normal human
brain ranged from 0.1-3.9 ug/g dry weight.
In a study of 208 samples taken from 7 patients, ... a mean aluminum content
of 1.9 + or - 0.07 ug/g dry weight of gray matter /was found/ to be abnormal.
In a study of 585 areas sampled from the brain
tissue of 10 patients with Alzheimer's disease they found 28% had an aluminum
concn > 4 ug/g. The range of the 585 samples was 0.4-107 ug/g. /Aluminum/
[Crapper DR et al; Brain
99: 67 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Average Daily Intake:
The daily ingestion of aluminum
by humans was estimated to be 30-50 mg. /Aluminum/ [Bjorksten JA; Comp Therapy 8: 73-6 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Natural Pollution Sources:
... LARGE DEPOSITS EXIST IN
GREENLAND AND IN THE URALS. [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
A NATURALLY OCCURRING MINERAL
CONTAINING UP TO 98% SODIUM ALUMINOFLUORIDE. [Spencer, E. Y. Guide to the Chemicals Used in Crop Protection.
7th ed. Publication 1093. Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa,
Canada: Information Canada, 1982. 142]**PEER REVIEWED**
Environmental Fate:
AQUATIC FATE: The adsorption
of aluminum by fine particulates was studied in Whitray Beck, a hill stream
in England. ... Uptake of aluminum by the particles increased with total
aluminum, with pH, and with particle concentration, although the fraction
of aluminum bound at a given pH and particle concentration decreased with
total aluminum ... . /Total aluminum/ [Tipping E et al; Environ Pollut 57 (2): 85-96 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
TERRESTRIAL FATE: Air dried,
<2 mm fractions of 3 soil samples from The Netherlands and 1 from New
Hampshire, were taken from the surface and sub-surface horizons of two podzols
(Haplorthods) and of a recent driftsand (Udipsamment). Duplicate samples
of each emulsion soil horizon were leached ... with aqueous hydrogen chloride
(pH 3.0). ... Charge balances of the leachates indicate that dissolved aluminum
is present mainly as aquo-aluminum(+3). Only in leachates of podzol Bhs
horizons is a significant fraction (20-30%) of dissolved aluminum organically
complexed. Dissolved aluminum concn are significantly correlated with the
organic tetrasodium pyrophosphorate extractable) aluminum content of the
soil sample. Mobility of aluminum in the Hubbard Brook soils is significantly
lower than in the Dutch soils, because of higher soil-solution pH values.
/Aluminum cmpd/ [Mulder J et al; Nature 337 (6204): 247-9 (1989)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Albic and spodic soil horizons
were sampled from old growth eastern white pine/mixed northern hardwoods.
Adirondacks, and an ochric soil horizon was sampled from the Appalachian
plateau of NY State. 21 Three-horizon forest floor and 21 forest floor/mineral
soil (field moist equivalent of 12.0 oven-dry albic, spodic, or ochric mineral
soil) columns were leached in triplicate with either 10 uM nitric acid (pH
5), 5 uM sulfuric acid (pH 5), 100 uM nitric acid (pH 4), 50 uM sulfuric
acid (pH 4), 1000 uM nitric acid (pH 3), 500 uM sulfuric acid (pH 3), or
distilled, deionized water (pH 5.7) control treatment. Nitric acid leached
more aluminum than did sulfuric acid from forest floor/spodic soil columns.
Increasing the nitric acid concn from pH 3 to 5 increased total aluminum
concn in leachates from 0.70 to 0.85 mM, while increasing sulfuric acid
had no effect. Addition of pH 3 sulfuric acid to forest floor/spodic columns
raised leachate pH relative to pH 3 nitric acid and controls, and resulted
in the lowest aluminum concn of all treatments in the first 3 of 4 sequential
leachings. /Aluminum/ [James BR, Riha SJ; Soil Sci Soc Am J 53 (1): 259-64 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Albic and spodic soil horizons
were sampled from old growth eastern white pine/mixed northern hardwoods
sites in the Adirondacks, and an ochric soil horizon was sampled from the
Appalachian Plateau of NY State. 9 Three-horizon forest floor, 9 mineral
soil (field moist equivalent of 12.0 oven-dry albic, spodic, or ochric mineral
soil) and 9 forest floor/mineral soil columns were leached with 60 ml of
(a) 10 mM ammonium nitrate (control), (b) 1.0 mM nitric acid in 10 mM ammonium
nitrate (pH 3), and (c) 1.0 mM ammonium nitrate (pH 3) at the rate of 10
ml/hr. The above procedure was repeated on each mineral soil without a forest
floor, except leaching soln were 0.5 mM calcium nitrate or calcium sulfate,
each in 10 mM ammonium nitrate. Adding 2 and 0.5 cmol sub c (H+)/kg to forest
floor and mineral soils, respectively, simulated snowmelt additions. Total
aluminum concn in leachates from forest floor/albic or forest floor/ochric
columns were greater than the sum of concn in leachates from the forest
floor and mineral horizon when leached separately. This positive synergistic
behavior of the forest floor-mineral horizon sequences was also observed
in the forest floor-spodic horizon sequence when leached with control soln,
but the synergism was negative for both labile and non-labile aluminum when
leached with the acids. Sulfuric acid leached less aluminum from the spodic
horizon than did nitric acid, regardless of the presence of a forest floor,
but nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and control soln leached similar concn of
aluminum from the albic and ochric horizons. The forest floor effects on
the mineral soil leachates were attributed to effects of calcium, sulfate,
nitrate, and dissolved organic carbon leached from the forest floor to the
mineral horizon since forest floor removed nearly all added H+. /Aluminum/
[James BR, Riha SJ; Soil Sci Soc Am J 53 (1): 264-9 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Environmental Water
Concentrations:
The solute and particulate aluminum
chemistry of a relatively unpolluted snowfall associated with a maritime
airmass was measured by neutron activation analysis and inductively coupled
plasma analysis (soluble fraction) and neutron activation analysis (particulate
material), to characterize background conditions for the Scottish Highlands.
Aluminum concentrations were compared to those found in a polluted black
snowfall with a trajectory that originated over eastern Europe and to those
levels found in seasonal snowpack. The variability of the concentration
of solute and the chemical composition of particulate material is reported
on an intra and intersite basis. The solute aluminum content of Scottish
snowfall in the intersite survey was 19.2 ug/l, and in the intra-site survey
52.2 ug/l. The aluminum composition of particulate matter found within Scottish
snow was 20,600 ppm in the intersite survey, and 21,100 ppm in the intrasite
survey. For the black snow, the solute aluminum content was 84 + or - 3
ug/l, and the aluminum composition of particulate matter was 52,300 ppm.
The mean concentration of aluminum in seasonal snowpack was 27,200 ppm.
/Aluminum solute & particulate/ [Landsberger S et al; Atmos Environ 23 (2): 395-401 (1989)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Plant Concentrations:
CRYOLITE
APPLIED TO GRAPES AT VARIOUS RATES & FORMULATIONS FOR CONTROL OF OMNIVEROUS
LEAF ROLLER: APPLIED ON JUNE 3 & JULY 21, RESIDUES AFTER 30 DAYS WERE
APPROX 5.9 PPM (ACCEPTABLE). LATER APPLICATIONS GAVE UNACCEPTABLE LEVELS
(GREATER THAN 7 PPM) IN RAISINS PRODUCED. [ARCHER TE, GAUER WO; AM J ENOL VITIC 30 (3): 202-4 (1979)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Environmental
Standards & Regulations:
FIFRA Requirements:
A tolerance of 7 ppm is established
for combined residues of the insecticidal fluorine cmpd cryolite
& synthetic cryolite
(sodium aluminum fluoride) in or on the following agricultural commodities:
apples; apricots; beans; beets (roots & tops); blackberries; blueberries
(huckleberries); boysenberries; broccoli; brussel sprouts; cabbage; carrots;
cauliflower; citrus fruits; collards; corn; cranberries; cucumbers; dewberries;
eggplant; grapes; kale; kohlrabi; lettuce; loganberries; melons; mustard
greens; nectarines; okra; peaches; peanuts; pears; peas; peppers; plums
(fresh prunes); pumpkins; quinces; radish (roots & tops); raspberries;
rutabaga (roots & tops); squash (winter & summer); strawberries;
tomatoes; turnips (roots & tops); & youngberries. [40 CFR 180.145(a) (7/1/91)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A tolerance with regional registration
is established for the combined residues of the insecticidal fluorine cmpd,
cryolite &
synthetic cryolite (sodium aluminum
fluoride), in or on the raw agricultural commodity: kiwifruit. [40 CFR 180.145(b) (7/1/91)]**PEER REVIEWED**
As the federal pesticide law
FIFRA directs, EPA is conducting a comprehensive review of older pesticides
to consider their health and environmental effects and make decisions about
their future use. Under this pesticide reregistration program, EPA examines
health and safety data for pesticide active ingredients initially registered
before November 1, 1984, and determines whether they are eligible for reregistration.
In addition, all pesticides must meet the new safety standard of the Food
Quality Protection Act of 1996. Cryolite
is found on List A, which contains most food use pesticides and consists
of the 194 chemical cases (or 350 individual active ingredients) for which
EPA issued registration standards prior to FIFRA, as amended in 1988. Case
No: 0087; Pesticide type: insecticide; Registration Standard Date: 05/23/88;
Case Status: RED Approved 06/96; OPP has made a decision that some/all uses
of the pesticide are eligible for reregistration, as reflected in a Reregistration
Eligibility Decision (RED) document.; Active ingredient (AI): Cryolite;
Data Call-in (DCI) Date(s): 07/20/90; AI Status: OPP has completed a Reregistration
Eligibility Decision (RED) document for the case/AI. [USEPA/OPP; Status of Pesticides in Registration, Reregistration
and Special Review p.106 (Spring, 1998) EPA 738-R-98-002]**QC REVIEWED**
Federal Drinking Water
Guidelines:
EPA 50-200 ug/l /Aluminum/ [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State Toxicology and Risk
Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water
Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC REVIEWED**
State Drinking Water
Standards:
(CA) CALIFORNIA 1000 ug/l /Aluminum/ [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State Toxicology and Risk
Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water
Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC REVIEWED**
State Drinking Water
Guidelines:
(AZ) ARIZONA 73 ug/l /Aluminum/ [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State Toxicology and Risk
Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water
Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC REVIEWED**
(CA) CALIFORNIA 200 ug/l /Aluminum/ [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State Toxicology and Risk
Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water
Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC REVIEWED**
(ME) MAINE 1430 ug/l /Aluminum/ [USEPA/Office of Water; Federal-State Toxicology and Risk
Analysis Committee (FSTRAC). Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water
Standards and Guidelines (11/93)] **QC REVIEWED**
Allowable Tolerances:
A tolerance of 7 ppm is established
for combined residues of the insecticidal fluorine cmpd cryolite
& synthetic cryolite
(sodium aluminum fluoride) in or on the following agricultural commodities:
apples; apricots; beans; beets (roots & tops); blackberries; blueberries
(huckleberries); boysenberries; broccoli; brussel sprouts; cabbage; carrots;
cauliflower; citrus fruits; collards; corn; cranberries; cucumbers; dewberries;
eggplant; grapes; kale; kohlrabi; lettuce; loganberries; melons; mustard
greens; nectarines; okra; peaches; peanuts; pears; peas; peppers; plums
(fresh prunes); pumpkins; quinces; radish (roots & tops); raspberries;
rutabaga (roots & tops); squash (winter & summer); strawberries;
tomatoes; turnips (roots & tops); & youngberries. [40 CFR 180.145(a) (7/1/91)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A tolerance with regional registration
of 15 ppm is established for the combined residues of the insecticidal fluorine
cmpd, cryolite &
synthetic cryolite (sodium aluminum
fluoride), in or on the raw agricultural commodity: kiwifruit. [40 CFR 180.145(b) (7/1/91)]**PEER REVIEWED**
A tolerance of 7 ppm is established
for combined residues of the insecticidal fluorine cmpd cryolite
& synthetic cryolite
(sodium aluminum fluoride) in or on the following agricultural commodities:
apples; apricots; beans; beets (roots & tops); blackberries; blueberries
(huckleberries); boysenberries; broccoli; brussel sprouts; cabbage; carrots;
cauliflower; citrus fruits; collards; corn; cranberries; cucumbers; dewberries;
eggplant; grapes; kale; kohlrabi; lettuce; loganberries; melons; mustard
greens; nectarines; okra; peaches; peanuts; pears; peas; peppers; plums
(fresh prunes); pumpkins; quinces; radish (roots & tops); raspberries;
rutabaga (roots & tops); squash (winter & summer); strawberries;
tomatoes; turnips (roots & tops); & youngberries. [40 CFR 180.145(a) (7/1/91)]**PEER REVIEWED**
MONOCLINIC CRYSTALS (NATURAL
PRODUCT); AMORPHOUS POWDER (SYNTHETIC PRODUCT) [Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
SNOW-WHITE, SEMI-OPAQUE MASSES,
VITREOUS FRACTURE; NATURAL FORM MAY BE COLORED REDDISH OR BROWN OR EVEN
BLACK BUT LOSES THIS DISCOLORATION ON HEATING [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
Colorless to dark solid [Note:
Loses color on heating]. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Odor:
Odorless. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Melting Point:
1000 DEG C [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
SOL IN DILUTE ALKALI [Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
SOL IN FUSED ALUMINUM, FERRIC
SALTS [Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York:
John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982. 1495]**PEER REVIEWED**
INSOL IN ALCOHOL [Farm Chemicals Handbook 88. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister Publishing
Co., 1988.,p. C-63]**PEER REVIEWED**
SOL IN CONCENTRATED SULFURIC
ACID [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
Spectral Properties:
INDEX OF REFRACTION: 1.338 [Sax, N.I. and R.J. Lewis, Sr. (eds.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 11th ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1987.
325]**PEER REVIEWED**
Other Chemical/Physical
Properties:
ALUMINUM OXIDE IS SOL AND DISSOCIABLE
IN MOLTEN CRYOLITE, AND ELECTRODEPOSITION
OF ALUMINUM METAL IS THUS POSSIBLE; MOHS' HARDNESS 2.5-3; FUSES FAIRLY EASILY
[The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
Chemical Safety
& Handling:
DOT Emergency Guidelines:
Fire or explosion: Flammable/combustible
material. May ignite on contact with air or moist air. May burn rapidly
with flare-burning effect. Some react vigorously or explosively on contact
with water. Some may decompose explosively when heated or involved in a
fire. May re-ignite after fire is extinguished. Runoff may create fire or
explosion hazard. /Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Health: Fire will produce irritating,
corrosive and/or toxic gases. Inhalation of decomposition products may cause
severe injury or death. Contact with substance may cause severe burns to
skin and eyes. Runoff from fire control may cause pollution. /Aluminum powder,
pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Public safety: CALL Emergency
Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping paper not
available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number listed on
the inside back cover. Isolate spill or leak area immediately for at least
100 to 150 meters (330 to 490 feet) in all directions. Stay upwind. Keep
unauthorized personnel away. Keep out of low areas. /Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/
[U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Protective clothing: Wear positive
pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective
clothing which is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. Structural
firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.
/Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Evacuation: Spill: See the Table
of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances for highlighted substances.
For non-highlighted substances, increase, in the downwind direction, as
necessary, the isolation distance shown under "PUBLIC SAFETY". Fire: If
tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters
(1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800
meters (1/2 mile) in all directions. /Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Fire: Do not use water, CO2,
or foam on material itself. Some of these materials may react violently
with water. Small fires: Dry chemical, soda ash, lime or dry sand. Large
fires: Dry sand, dry chemical, soda ash or lime or withdraw from area and
let fire burn. Caution: Dithionite (Hydrosulfite/Hydrosulphite) fires may
require flooding with water in order to eliminate hazardous reaction since
the materials generate their own oxygen. Move containers from fire area
if you can do it without risk. Fire involving tanks or car/trailer loads:
Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor
nozzles. Do not get water inside containers or in contact with substance.
Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire
is out. Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety
devices or discoloration of tank. ALWAYS stay away from the ends of tanks.
/Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Spill or leak: Fully encapsulating,
vapor protective clothing should be worn for spills and leak with no fire.
ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in
immediate area). Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Stop leak
if you can do it without risk. Small spills: Cover with DRY earth, DRY sand,
or other non-combustible material followed with plastic sheet to minimize
spreading or contact with rain. Use clean non-sparking tools to collect
material and place it into loosely covered plastic containers for later
disposal. Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.
/Aluminum powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
First aid: Move victim to fresh
air. Call emergency medical care. Apply artificial respiration if victim
is not breathing. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult. Remove and
isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of contact with substance,
immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes.
Keep victim warm and quiet. Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the
material(s) involved, and take precautions to protect themselves. /Aluminum
powder, pyrophoric/ [U.S. Department of Transportation. 1996 North American Emergency
Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial
Phase of aHazardous Materials/Dangerous Goods Incident. U.S. Department
of Transportation (U.S. DOT) Research and Special Programs Administration,
Office of HazardousMaterials Initiatives and Training (DHM-50), Washington,
D.C. (1996).,p. G-135]**QC REVIEWED**
Skin, Eye and Respiratory
Irritations:
Respiratory and eye irritant
only. /Aluminum (dust or powder)/ [National Fire Protection Association. Fire Protection Guide
on Hazardous Materials. 9th ed. Boston, MA: National Fire Protection Association,
1986.,p. 49-15]**PEER REVIEWED**
Hazardous Reactivities
& Incompatibilities:
INCOMPATIBILITIES: ... /CRYOLITE
IS/ INCOMPATIBLE WITH ALKALINE PESTICIDES SUCH AS LIME SULFUR, BORDEAUX
MIXTURE. [Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
INCOMPATIBILITIES: WITH LIME,
CRYOLITE UNDERGOES THE FOLLOWING
REACTION: NA3ALF6 + 3CA(OH)2 YIELDS NA3ALO3 + 3CAF2 + 3H2O WHICH RESULTS
IN PLANT INJURY. [White-Stevens, R. (ed.). Pesticides in the Environment:
Volume 1, Part 1, Part 2. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1971. 69]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Strong oxidizers. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Hazardous Decomposition:
WHEN HEATED ... EMITS HIGHLY
TOXIC FUMES OF /HYDROGEN FLUORIDE AND DISODIUM OXIDE./ [Lewis, R.J. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials.
9th ed. Volumes 1-3. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1996. 2965]**QC
REVIEWED**
Immediately Dangerous
to Life or Health:
250 mg/cu m /Fluorides (as F)/
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Protective Equipment
& Clothing:
Wear appropriate personal protective
clothing to prevent skin contact. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Wear appropriate eye protection
to prevent eye contact. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Max concn for use: 12.5 mg/cu m. Respirator Class(es): Any dust
and mist respirator. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Max concn for use: 25 mg/cu m. Respirator Class(es): Any dust
and mist respirator except single-use and quarter-mask respirators. May
require eye protection. Any supplied-air respirator. May require eye protection.
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Max concn for use: 62.5 mg/cu m. Respirator Class(es): Any supplied-air
respirator operated in a continuous flow mode. May require eye protection.
Any powered, air-purifying respirator with a dust and mist filter. May require
eye protection. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Max concn for use: 125 mg/cu m. Respirator Class(es): Any air-purifying,
full-facepiece respirator with a high-efficiency particulate filter. May
need acid gas sorbent. Any self-contained breathing apparatus with a full
facepiece. Any supplied-air respirator with a full facepiece. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Max concn for use: 250 mg/cu m. Respirator Class(es): Any supplied-air
respirator that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand
or other positive-pressure mode. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Condition: Emergency or planned entry into unknown concn or IDLH
conditions: Respirator Class(es): Any self-contained breathing apparatus
that has a full facepiece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure mode. Any supplied-air respirator that has a full facepiece
and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode in
combination with an auxiliary self-contained breathing apparatus operated
in pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Recommendations for respirator
selection. Condition: Escape from suddenly occurring respiratory hazards:
Respirator Class(es): Any air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator with
a high-efficiency particulate filter. May need acid gas sorbent. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Preventive Measures:
The worker should immediately
wash the skin when it becomes contaminated. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Work clothing that becomes wet
or significantly contaminated should be removed or replaced. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Workers whose clothing may have
become contaminated should change into uncontaminated clothing before leaving
the work premises. [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
SRP: The scientific literature
for the use of contact lenses in industry is conflicting. The benefit or
detrimental effects of wearing contact lenses depend not only upon the substance,
but also on factors including the form of the substance, characteristics
and duration of the exposure, the uses of other eye protection equipment,
and the hygiene of the lenses. However, there may be individual substances
whose irritating or corrosive properties are such that the wearing of contact
lenses would be harmful to the eye. In those specific cases, contact lenses
should not be worn. In any event, the usual eye protection equipment should
be worn even when contact lenses are in place. **PEER REVIEWED**
Stability/Shelf Life:
MORE STABLE THAN FLUOSILICATE
WITH RESPECT TO HYDROLYSIS [Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
II-113]**PEER REVIEWED**
DECOMP BY BOILING WITH AQ ALKALI
HYDROXIDES OR AQ CALCIUM HYDROXIDE [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
Occupational
Exposure Standards:
OSHA Standards:
Permissible Exposure Limit:
Table Z-1 8-hr Time Weighted Avg: 2.5 mg/cu m. /Fluorides, as F/ [29 CFR 1910.1000 (7/1/98)]**QC REVIEWED**
Threshold Limit Values:
8 hr Time Weighted Avg (TWA)
2.5 mg/cu m /Fluorides (as F)/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 39]**QC
REVIEWED**
Excursion Limit Recommendation:
Excursions in worker exposure levels may exceed three times the TLV-TWA
for no more than a total of 30 min during a work day, and under no circumstances
should they exceed five times the TLV-TWA, provided that the TLV-TWA is
not exceeded. /Fluorides (as F)/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 6]**QC
REVIEWED**
Biological Exposure Index adoption
(1990-91 edition): Fluorides in urine prior to shift is 3 mg/g creatinine.
Fluorides in urine at end of shift is 10 mg/g creatinine. The determinant
is usually present in a significant amt in biological specimens collected
from subjects who have not been occupationally exposed. Such background
levels are incl in the BEI value. The determinant is nonspecific, since
it is observed after exposure to some other chemicals. These nonspecific
tests are preferred because they are easy to use and usually offer a better
correlation with exposure than specific tests. In such instances, a BEI
for a specific, less quantitative biological determinant is recommended
as a confirmatory test. /Fluorides (as F)/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 100]**QC
REVIEWED**
8 hr Time Weighted Avg (TWA)
2 mg/cu m /Aluminum, soluble salts, as Al/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 16]**QC
REVIEWED**
Excursion Limit Recommendation:
Excursions in worker exposure levels may exceed three times the TLV-TWA
for no more than a total of 30 min during a work day, and under no circumstances
should they exceed five times the TLV-TWA, provided that the TLV-TWA is
not exceeded. /Aluminum, soluble salts, as Al/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 6]**QC
REVIEWED**
A4. A4= Not classifiable as
a human carcinogen. /Fluorides, as F/ [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
Biological Exposure Indices for 1998. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1998. 39]**QC
REVIEWED**
NIOSH Recommendations:
10 HR Time-Weighted avg: 2.5
mg/cu m /Fluorides (as F)/ [NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Immediately Dangerous
to Life or Health:
250 mg/cu m /Fluorides (as F)/
[NIOSH. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 94-116. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
June 1994. 280]**QC REVIEWED**
Other Occupational Permissible
Levels:
USSR: 1 mg/cu m /Fluorides,
as hydrogen fluoride/ [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 892]**PEER REVIEWED**
Manufacturing/Use
Information:
Major Uses:
STOMACH AND CONTACT INSECTICIDE
[Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
IN ALUMINUM & FLUORINE INDUSTRY
[The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
PRINCIPALLY AN ELECTROLYTE IN
PRODN & REFINING OF ALUMINUM; FLUX IN PRODN OF VARIOUS METALS &
ALLOYS; FLUX & OPACIFIER IN MANUFACTURE OF GLASS & ENAMELS; COATING
FOR WELDING RODS; FILLER FOR RESIN, RUBBER, CERAMIC-BONDED GRINDING WHEELS
[SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
ELECTRIC INSULATION; EXPLOSIVES;
POLISHES. [Sax, N.I. and R.J. Lewis, Sr. (eds.). Hawley's Condensed
Chemical Dictionary. 11th ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1987.
325]**PEER REVIEWED**
Added to fireworks to produce
yellow-colored explosion. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V19 487 (1982)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Added to several gun propellants
at 0.3% [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V9 641 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Used with a sodium salt for
heating of vanadium ores prior to leaching for metal removal. [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V23 696 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
MEDICATION **PEER REVIEWED**
Manufacturers:
ALUMINUM CO OF AMERICA, POINT
COMFORT, TX [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
KAISER ALUMINUM & CHEM CORP,
KAISER CHEMS DIV, CHALMETTE, LA [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
PENNWALT CORP, CHEM DIV, PITTSBURGH,
PA [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
REYNOLDS METALS CO, CHEMS DIV,
BAUXITE, AR [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
IT IS COMMONLY PRODUCED BY MIXING
SODIUM ALUMINATE SOLN WITH LIQUID OR GASEOUS HYDROGEN FLUORIDE. [International Labour Office. Encyclopedia of Occupational
Health and Safety. Vols. I&II. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983. 892]**PEER REVIEWED**
... SYNTHETICALLY FROM ALUMINUM
FLUORIDE, AMMONIUM FLUORIDE AND SALT. [Spencer, E. Y. Guide to the Chemicals Used in Crop Protection.
7th ed. Publication 1093. Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa,
Canada: Information Canada, 1982. 142]**PEER REVIEWED**
SYNTHETIC CRYOLITE
IS USUALLY MADE FROM SODIUM ALUMINATE, SODIUM BICARBONATE, & SODIUM
FLUORIDE. [The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co.,
Inc., 1983. 374]**PEER REVIEWED**
Cryolite
may be obtained by (a) mining natural mineral cryolite
or (b) synthesis by the reaction of aluminum oxide, sodium chloride and
hydrogen fluoride [SITTIG. PESTICIDE MFG & TOX MATER CONTROL ENCYC 1980
p.218]**PEER REVIEWED**
A low-grade fluoroboric acid
is used in the manufacture of cryolite
for the electrolytic production of aluminum /reaction involves fluoroboric
acid, aluminum oxide, water and Na2SO4NaF/ [Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed.,
Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984.,p. V10 695 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
General Manufacturing
Information:
/CRYOLITE
IS/ INCOMPATIBLE WITH ALKALINE PESTICIDES SUCH AS LIME SULFUR, BORDEAUX
MIXTURE. [Worthing, C. R. (ed.). Pesticide Manual. 6th ed. Worcestershire,
England: British Crop Protection Council, l979. 132]**PEER REVIEWED**
WITH LIME, CRYOLITE
UNDERGOES ... /A CHEMICAL/ REACTION /THAT/ ... RESULTS IN PLANT INJURY.
[White-Stevens, R. (ed.). Pesticides in the Environment:
Volume 1, Part 1, Part 2. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1971. 69]**PEER
REVIEWED**
THE SUPPLY IN SOILS IS ABUNDANT.
SOME ACID SOILS CONTAIN SUFFICIENT ALUMINUM IN SOLUTION FORM TO KILL CERTAIN
PLANTS. /ALUMINUM/ [Farm Chemicals Handbook 87. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister Publishing
Co., 1987.,p. B-16]**PEER REVIEWED**
Formulations/Preparations:
Kryocide
/insecticide produced by Pennwalt/ 96% sodium fluoaluminate
[Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
V-353]**PEER REVIEWED**
... GENERALLY @ 0.2% SUSPENSION
/AS INSECTICIDE/ [Spencer, E. Y. Guide to the Chemicals Used in Crop Protection.
7th ed. Publication 1093. Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa,
Canada: Information Canada, 1982. 142]**PEER REVIEWED**
Consumption Patterns:
ABOUT 75% IN THE PRODN &
REFINING OF ALUMINUM; 25% IN ALL OTHER APPLICATIONS (1965) [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
U. S. Production:
(1972) AT LEAST 8.8X10+10 G
[SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
(1975) AT LEAST 8.3X10+10 G
(EST) [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
U. S. Imports:
(1972) 2.33X10+10 G [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
(1973) 3.48X10+10 G [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
U. S. Exports:
(1972) 6.14X10+8 G (INCL OTHER
MINERALS) [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
(1975) 1.60X10+9 G QUARTZ, QUARTZITE,
CHIOLITE [SRI]**PEER REVIEWED**
Laboratory
Methods:
Clinical Laboratory
Methods:
NIOSH Method 114. Analyte: Fluoride.
Matrix: Urine. Procedure: Ion specific electrode. The electrode recommended
range is 0.19-1900 ml/l urine. Hydroxide is the only positive interference
which is eliminated by the use of pH buffer. /Fluoride/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V1 114-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 8310. Urine samples
containing aluminum and its compounds are analyzed using Inductively Coupled
Argon Plasma - Atomic Emission Spectroscopy at a wavelength of 308.2 nm.
Sample preparation includes addition of a polydithiocarbamate resin, filtration,
ashing, and dissolution with concentrated nitric/concentrated perchloric
acid (4:1 v/v). This method has a detection limit of 0.1 ug/sample and a
relative standard deviation of 0.088 over a range of 0.25 to 200 ug/sample
with a recovery of 100%. /Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. NIOSHManual of Analytical Methods, 3rd ed. Volumes 1
and 2 with 1985 supplement, and revisions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, February 1984.,p. 8310-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Procedures for aluminum determination
in body fluids by flameless atomic absorption spectrometry with a graphite
furnace are described. Topics covered include sample preparation, applicable
specifications, and possible difficulties which can arise. /Aluminum/ [Bertram HP; Nieren-Hochdruckkr 10 (5): 188-81 (1981)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A microanalytical method for
the measurement of aluminum in biological samples is presented, which requires
1-500 mg of brain tissues and less than
1 ml of blood, urine, or other aqueous samples. /Aluminum/ [Couri D et al; Alum Neurotoxic, Pap Symp 17-24 (1981)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
A CATION-EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
PROCEDURE IS OUTLINED FOR THE SIMPLE AND QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF TRACE
AMOUNTS OF ALUMINUM IN BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL (URINE) EMPLOYING NEUTRON ACTIVATION
ANALYSIS. /ALUMINUM/ [BLOTCKY AJ ET AL; ANAL CHEM 48 (7): 1084 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**
Blood and urine aluminum concn
were studied in industrially exposed workers using electrothermal atomic
absorption spectrometry. The detection limit was 5 ug/l for aluminum in
blood and 3 ug/l for aluminum in urine. /Aluminum/ [Sjoegren B et al; Br J Ind Med 40 (3): 301-4 (1983)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
Analytic Laboratory
Methods:
NATURAL PRODUCT SAMPLE, TITRATION
METHOD FOR TOTAL FLUORINE. /FLUORINE/ [Association of Official Analytic Chemists. Official Methods
of Analysis of the AOAC. 14th ed. Arlington, VA: Association of Official
Analytic Chemists, Inc., 1984.,p. 84/6.019]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 117. Analyte: Total
fluoride. Matrix: Air. Procedure: Collection via impinger, ion specific
electrode. The range covered by the analytical method for a 40 l sample
is 0.05 to 475 mg/cu m. Precision for sampling and analysis of 16 samples
of approximately 100 mg hydrogen fluoride was 6.5% RSD. The analytical precision
at 50 mg fluoride is 0.8% RSD. /Fluoride/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V1 117-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Method 413B: Electrode Method.
This method is suitable for fluoride concn from 0.1 to more than 10 mg/l.
The fluoride electrode is a selective ion sensor. The key element in the
fluoride electrode is the laser-type doped lanthanum fluoride crystal across
which a potential is established by fluoride soln of different concn. The
crystal contacts the sample soln at one face and an internal reference soln
at the other. The fluoride electrode measures the ion activity of fluoride
in soln rather than concn. Fluoride ion activity depends on the soln total
ionic strength and pH, and on fluoride complexing species. Adding an appropriate
buffer provides a uniform ionic strength background, adjusts pH, and breaks
up complexes so that, in effect, the electrode measures concn. A synthetic
sample containing 0.850 mg fluoride ion/l in distilled water was analyzed
in 111 laboratories with relative standard deviation of 3.6% and relative
error of 0.7%. /Fluoride/ [Franson MA (Ed); Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater p.357-9 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 173. Analyte: Sodium.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: Atomic absorption spectrometry. Samples are treated
with nitric acid to ash the organic matrix and to dissolve the metal present
in the sample. The analysis is subsequently made by atomic absorption spectrometry.
The relative standard deviation of the method is 3 percent. This method
has the sensitivity of 0.015 ug/ml, detection limit of 0.0002 ug/ml for
the range of 0.5-5.0 ug/ml to 21-210 ug/cu m. /Sodium/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V1 173-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Determination in air: Atomic
absorption analysis. /Aluminum and its cmpd/ [Sittig, M. Handbook of Toxic And Hazardous Chemicals. Park
Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation, 1981. 41]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 7013. Samples containing
aluminum and its compounds are analyzed using Atomic Absorption, Flame at
a wave length of 309.3 nm. Sample preparation includes filtration, ashing,
and dissolution with concentrated nitric/concentrated perchloric acid (4:1
v/v). This method has a detection limit of 2 ug/sample and precision of
0.03 over a range of 50 to 5000 mg/sample. /Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. NIOSHManual of Analytical Methods, 3rd ed. Volumes 1
and 2 with 1985 supplement, and revisions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, February 1984.,p. 7013-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 7300. Air samples
containing aluminum are analyzed using Inductively Coupled Argon Plasma
- Atomic Emission Spectroscopy at a wavelength of 308.2. An ashing step
with concentrated nitric acid/concentrated perchloric acid (4:1 v/v) is
necessary. This method has an instrumental detection limit of 14 ng/ml,
a sensitivity of 0.23 ug/ml, and a precision of 0.092 at 2.5 ug/filter.
/Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. NIOSHManual of Analytical Methods, 3rd ed. Volumes 1
and 2 with 1985 supplement, and revisions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, February 1984.,p. 7300-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
EMISSION SPECTROGRAPHIC METHODS.
ALUMINUM ... IN PLANTS. /ALUMINUM/ [Association of Official Analytic Chemists. Official Methods
of Analysis of the AOAC. 14th ed. Arlington, VA: Association of Official
Analytic Chemists, Inc., 1984.,p. 38/3.006]**PEER REVIEWED**
Titrimetric Method. Aluminum
... in plants. /Aluminum/ [Association of Official Analytic Chemists. Official Methods
of Analysis of the AOAC. 14th ed. Arlington, VA: Association of Official
Analytic Chemists, Inc., 1984.,p. 40/3.017]**PEER REVIEWED**
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric
method. Aluminum in ... soil. /Aluminum/ [Association of Official Analytic Chemists. Official Methods
of Analysis of the AOAC. 14th ed. Arlington, VA: Association of Official
Analytic Chemists, Inc., 1984.,p. 33/2.194]**PEER REVIEWED**
USE OF ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPE
TO ANALYZE ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES CONTAINING ALUMINUM. /ALUMINUM/ [DILLARD JG ET AL; ATMOS ENVIRON 14 (1): 129-136 (1980)]**PEER
REVIEWED**
NIOSH METHOD 173. ANALYTE: ALUMINUM;
MATRIX: AIR; RANGE: 5-50 UG/ML, 210-2100 UG/CU M; PROCEDURE: FILTER COLLECTION,
ACID DIGESTION, ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTMETRY AT 309.3 NM. /ALUMINUM/
[U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V5 173-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Sampling Procedures:
NIOSH Method 114. Analyte: Fluoride.
Matrix: Urine. Procedure: Urine samples are collected in chemically clean
bottles containing 0.2 g of EDTA. Samples that can not be analyzed within
48 hours should be refrigerated. /Fluoride/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V1 114-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 173. Analyte: Sodium.
Matrix: Air. Procedure: Collection on a membrane filter. Personal sampling
pumps are operated at 1.5 l/min. A 2 hr sample at 1.5 l/min will provide
enough sample to detect the element sought at air concentrations of 0.2
times TLV. /Sodium/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V1 173-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Determination in air: Filter
collection. /Aluminum and its cmpd/ [Sittig, M. Handbook of Toxic And Hazardous Chemicals. Park
Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation, 1981. 41]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 173. Analyte: Aluminum;
Matrix: Air; Procedure: Filter collection, acid digestion; Flow rate: 1.5
l/min; Sample Size: 180 liters. /Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health, Education Welfare, Public Health
Service. Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety Health. NIOSH Manual ofAnalytical Methods. 2nd ed. Volumes 1-7. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-present.,p. V5 173-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 7300. Analyte:
Aluminum; Matrix: Air; Sampler: Filter (0.8 um, cellulose ester membrane);
Flow Rate: 1 to 4 l/min; Sample Size: 500 liters. /Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. NIOSHManual of Analytical Methods, 3rd ed. Volumes 1
and 2 with 1985 supplement, and revisions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, February 1984.,p. 7300-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
NIOSH Method 7013. Analyte:
Aluminum; Matrix: Air; Sampler: Filter (0.8 um, cellulose ester membrane);
Flow Rate: 1 to 3 l/min; Sampler Size: 100 liters. /Aluminum/ [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. NIOSHManual of Analytical Methods, 3rd ed. Volumes 1
and 2 with 1985 supplement, and revisions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, February 1984.,p. 7013-1]**PEER REVIEWED**
Kryocide
/insecticide produced by Pennwalt/ 96% sodium fluoaluminate
[Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology
of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.,p.
V-353]**PEER REVIEWED**
... GENERALLY @ 0.2% SUSPENSION
/AS INSECTICIDE/ [Spencer, E. Y. Guide to the Chemicals Used in Crop Protection.
7th ed. Publication 1093. Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa,
Canada: Information Canada, 1982. 142]**PEER REVIEWED**